Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal Agency for Education State
educational institution of higher professional education
"Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University"
Tutorial
TD-50, TD-58
A-40, A-50, A-90 (figure - % ammonium nitrate content)
Indexes of some projectiles
Table 2.
Mass deviation signs marked on the projectile
Table 3.
Mass deviation signs | Weight deviation from the table, % |
Easier by more than Easier from toEasier from toEasier from toEasier from toLighter or heavier to Harder from toHarder from toHarder from toHarder from toHeavier by more than |
The markings on the sleeves are applied with black paint on the side surface and indicate:
1. “Reduced” - name of the charge.
3. 122-D30 - caliber and gun index.
4. 4/1 2/0-0 - brand of gunpowder; batch number, year of manufacture of gunpowder and code of the gunpowder factory.
5. 1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly, you assembled the shot.
Gunpowder is assigned a symbol called a gunpowder grade. The brand of gunpowder is indicated by a fraction, the numerator of which shows the thickness of the burning arch of grain in tenths of a millimeter, and the denominator is the number of channels in the grain.
For example: 9/7 - thickness of the burning vault 0.9 mm, seven-channel.
After the numbers come the quality indicators of gunpowder:
1. SV - fresh.
2. Per - rework.
3. Fl - phlegmatized.
4. TR - tubular.
2.1. Approximate markings on shells
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Fig.2. Cumulative projectile BK6 (BK6M)
122 - projectile caliber;
H - sign of mass deviation;
Fig.3. BK13 cumulative projectile
00 - equipment factory code;
0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
H - sign of mass deviation;
A-IX-I - explosive code;
Fig.4. High-explosive fragmentation projectile OF-462
00 - equipment factory code;
0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
“+” - sign of mass deviation;
T - equipment code;
Notes: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the letter Zh, for example OF-462Zh.
2. The OF-24 high-explosive fragmentation projectile differs from the OF-462 projectile in the presence of an adapter sleeve and the type of explosive.
3. The OF-56 high-explosive fragmentation projectile differs from the OF-462 projectile in the design of the body (solid body) and the type of explosive (high-power).
Fig.5. Lighting projectile S-463
00 - equipment factory code;
0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
“+” - sign of mass deviation;
102-B - lighting composition code;
Notes: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the index S-463ZH.
Fig.6. C4 illumination projectile
00 - equipment factory code;
0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
“+” - sign of mass deviation;
P - code of the lighting composition;
Note: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the index S4Zh.
Fig.7. Smoke shell D4
00 - equipment factory code;
0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
“+” - sign of mass deviation;
R-4 - smoke-forming substance code;
Fig.8. Propaganda projectile A1
0 - warehouse number;
0 - batch number;
0-0-0-00 - number of leaflets,
date of equipping the projectile;
122 - projectile caliber;
H - sign of mass deviation;
AGIT - equipment code;
Notes: 1. The projectile body is painted red.
2. The T-7 tube on the safety and ballistic caps has a black ring stripe.
2.2. Approximate markings on sleeves
Fig.9. Special charge
1 - sleeve;
2 - reinforced cover;
3 - cardboard cylinder;
4 - normal cover;
5 - package of gunpowder (9/7+12/1 TR);
6 - igniter;
7 - flame arrester (VTX-10);
8 - capsule sleeve;
9 - braid ring;
10 - lubricant PP-95/5;
9/7 and 12/1 TR - grades of gunpowder;
VTX-10 - brand of flame arrester;
arrow and number of the base that produced
shot assembly.
Fig. 10. Full charge
1 - sleeve;
2 - reinforced cover;
3 - normal cover;
4 - decoupler;
5 - package of gunpowder (12/7+12/1 TR);
6 - igniter;
7 - flame arrester (VTX-10);
8 - capsule sleeve;
9 - braid ring;
10 - lubricant PP-95/5;
122-D30 - gun caliber and index;
12/7 and 12/1 TR - grades of gunpowder;
2/0-0 - batch number, year of manufacture
gunpowder code and gunpowder factory code;
1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly
arrow and number of the base that produced
shot assembly.
Fig. 11. Reduced alternating charge
1 - sleeve;
2 - reinforced cover;
3 - normal cover;
4 - decoupler;
5 - equilibrium beams (9/7);
6 - nonequilibrium beam (9/7);
7 - main package (4/1);
8 - igniter;
9 - flame arrester (VTX-10);
10 - capsule sleeve;
11 - braid ring;
12 - lubricant PP-95/5;
122-D30 - gun caliber and index;
4/1 and 9/7 - grades of gunpowder;
2/0-0 - batch number, year of manufacture
gunpowder code and gunpowder factory code;
1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly
arrow and number of the base that produced
shot assembly.
3. Capping ammunition
Capping boxes are designed for storing and transporting ammunition and shot elements.
Complete sets of shots are placed in sealing boxes for shots of separate cartridge loading. To ensure tight packing of shot elements, each box has a set of wooden inserts and fittings. The boxes are closed with a lid attached to the box frame with metal hinges and gramophone-type locks. The boxes are painted with protective paint, over which markings are applied about the combat purpose of the shot and the production data of its elements. All loose closures and inserts for them, as well as cartridge cases of combat charges, are subject to mandatory return for reuse.
Fuses are stored and transported in hermetically sealed galvanized iron boxes placed in wooden boxes.
3.1. Approximate markings on the closure
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Fig. 13. Marking on the side of the box
The markings on the side of the box indicate:
1. OF-462Zh - projectile index.
2. 0-0-0 - factory code, batch number and year of equipping the projectile.
3. T - explosive code.
The markings on the box lid indicate:
1. A triangle with a number inside is a danger sign and a load discharge.
4. Handling of ammunition during transportation
Transportation of ammunition can be carried out by rail, water, road, air, horse-drawn and pack transport.
Transportation of ammunition by road in the military is the main type of transportation.
Cars, trailers and other vehicles should be loaded with ammunition in such a way that they do not exceed the load capacity established for them.
Ammunition is transported only in standard and working order.
Boxes with ammunition may be placed in the body both across the vehicle and along it, in the direction of travel, taking into account more complete use of the vehicle's carrying capacity.
Boxes with ammunition in all cases are placed with the lids up and carefully secured to protect them from shocks, shifts, impacts and falls.
It is prohibited to place ammunition boxes higher than the sides, more than half the height of the top row box.
For the transportation of ammunition, technically sound vehicles (with working silencers) are allocated, which are provided with fire extinguishers and a felt mat.
Vehicles with ammunition are equipped with red flags on the left side to indicate the danger of the cargo.
Car drivers must be thoroughly briefed on the rules for transporting ammunition before leaving for a trip.
When transporting ammunition by road, it is prohibited:
1. Exceed the set speed.
2. Refuel loaded cars or transfer gasoline from the tanks of one car to the tanks of another.
3. Warm up the car engine with an open flame.
4. Transport ammunition together with flammable liquids.
5. Drive vehicles into areas, under sheds, and into ammunition storage areas.
6. Stop vehicles with ammunition in populated areas.
7. Stop for rest and rest closer than 50 m from the road.
8. Smoking on vehicles loaded with ammunition or within 25 m of them.
9. Lighting an open fire within 100 m of vehicles with ammunition.
10. Transport ammunition in vehicles that are not equipped with fire extinguishing equipment.
5. Handling ammunition at the OP
Ammunition is supplied to the firing position in a fully loaded form (except for rocket artillery shells), high-precision rounds - only in capped form. The senior battery officer receives ammunition, organizes its unloading by gun crews and fills out a table of the availability and consumption of ammunition.
Ammunition is unloaded in compliance with safety requirements.
Prohibited:
1. throw boxes of ammunition;
2. drag, turn;
3. place them on the side wall;
4. carry on your back and shoulders.
Each box of ammunition is unloaded and transported to the stowage site with the lid up and at least two gun numbers.
At the firing position, ammunition is stored in dry niches of gun trenches and cellars, laid on pads. Niches and cellars must be equipped so that the ammunition contained in them is protected from the shock wave of a nuclear explosion, from bullets and shrapnel, and covered with local materials from rain, snow, sand, dust and sunlight.
The consumable stock of ammunition in a closed firing position is laid out and stored in the niches of the gun trench in the amount of 0.25 - 0.5 bq (for high-power guns - in the amount of 0.15 - 0.3 bq).
Charges for high-power guns are stored in hermetically sealed containers.
At an open firing position, the designated amount of ammunition is laid out in niches and on the platforms of gun trenches.
If there is time, the cellars are connected to the gun trenches by communication passages.
Spent ammunition is replenished from the cellars.
In niches and on the platforms of gun trenches, ammunition is stored in stacks, capped with the lids up, with open locks, freed from the upper fittings and spacer bars, or laid out from the cap. In the latter case, the ammunition is placed on poles (linings) or on a bedding made of local materials and covered on top with a tarpaulin or other materials that protect them from rain, dust and sunlight.
In cellars, ammunition is stored in sealed containers with closed locks. The maximum height of the ammunition stack should be 0.5 m less than the depth of the cellar or niche of the gun trench.
Store ammunition in crew shelters prohibited .
The senior battery officer is responsible for the correct and safe placement and storage of ammunition at the firing position and compliance with all safety requirements when firing.
When handling ammunition at a firing position, it is prohibited:
1. Disassemble ammunition.
2. Place shells, mines, charges in cartridge cases and unitary shots vertically.
3. Impact fuses and ignition means, as well as striking ammunition against each other.
4. Carry by hand more than one uncapped shot or projectile (mine) of 82 mm caliber or more.
5. Carry uncapped, fully loaded shells (mines) of 152 mm caliber or more without supporting devices.
6. Carry ammunition in a faulty closure.
The following shots are not allowed to fire:
1. Having elements prohibited for combat use.
2. Not listed in the Firing Table for this gun.
3. Without markings and with erased markings.
The following shells (mines) are not allowed to fire:
1. With a fuse delivered to the firing position without mounting or safety caps (caps).
2. With the fuse head bushing unscrewed (at least partially).
3. With unscrewed fuses and tubes.
4. With fuses (having a traveling mount), delivered to the firing position with the installation of combat action.
5. With fuses affected by solid rust on the outer surface of the body.
6. With traces of impacts and soot on the body and fuse.
7. With screwed fuses, dropped from a height of 1 m, as well as shells dropped from any height onto the bow.
8. Finally equipped, exposed to an explosion, fire, bombing or artillery shelling.
9. With cracks on the body, with cavities on the centering thickenings.
10. Having an explosive leak through the threaded connections in the projectile.
11. With wobbly stabilizers, as well as with bent or broken stabilizer feathers, with bent ballistic tips (for armor-piercing projectiles).
The following ammunition is not allowed to fire:
1. With cartridges that have bruises that prevent loading, as well as those with cracks on the bottom or on the body (cases with cracks on the muzzle that do not violate the tightness of the combat charge are allowed).
2. In cartridge cases and unitary cartridges with unscrewed primer bushings.
3. With drop-out reinforced lids and showing signs of dampness of gunpowder and caps.
4. Soaked and also with torn caps.
5. Unitary cartridges with a skewed projectile that prevents loading, as well as with a rotating projectile in the case.
The specified ammunition, except for shells and cartridges with unscrewed fuses and primer bushings, is set aside for shipment to an artillery weapons depot.
When preparing ammunition you must:
1. Remove grease from projectiles and cartridge cases.
2. Remove rust from projectile bodies.
3. Tighten the head fuses or tubes, as well as the primer bushings, if they are partially unscrewed (tighten the primer bushing only with a standard key from the spare parts).
4. Remove nicks on the leading flanges of the projectiles and on the flanges of the cartridge cases.
Prepare specific samples of ammunition in accordance with the technical description and operating instructions.
First remove the grease from the projectiles with scrapers, and then with a rag or tow, slightly moistened with white spirit (gasoline, solvent).
When preparing mines, pay special attention to removing grease from stabilizers and fire transfer holes.
When removing grease from shells and cleaning them from rust, do not violate the markings on shells, mines and cartridges.
For cleaning, ammunition is removed from the cap and placed on poles, pads or an empty cap one box high.
To eliminate minor malfunctions (tightening fuses, removing nicks), as well as to replace primer bushings (ignition charges), a place is allocated at the firing position (no closer than 50 m from gun or mortar trenches and ammunition magazines) in a specially prepared trench or behind natural cover .
Handling ammunition during firing.
1. When loading shells, do not drop them or hit the head part on the barrel breech or carriage.
2. It is allowed to unscrew the safety caps from the tubes and fuses, the installation caps from the impact fuses, install the fuses, open the hermetic sealing of the warheads and assemble the charges immediately before firing.
3. If, when removing the installation or safety caps, damage to the membrane is discovered, then shells with such fuses are not allowed to be fired.
4. It is prohibited to make any combinations of packages and additional bundles of gunpowder that are not provided for in the Shooting Tables. After making up an alternating charge, be sure to put the normal cap into the sleeve and add it until the charge beams are pressed.
5. It is prohibited to fire with a reinforced cover, except for the charges provided for in the Artillery System Firing Tables.
7. Ignition charges for mines must be sent into the stabilizer tube until the cartridge case stops at the cut of the stabilizer tube. The packaging of additional mortar round bundles must be in good working order.
8. Faulty shells are stored and sent to the warehouse on the instructions of the head of the missile and artillery weapons service.
9. Unused additional bundles of charges must be placed in a serviceable iron or wooden box at a distance of 10 - 20 m from the gun.
Handling ammunition after shooting.
1. It is prohibited to transport loaded guns (except for combat vehicles),
2. Separately loaded guns that remain loaded after firing are unloaded only by firing. Other guns, as well as mortars, are allowed to be unloaded by removing the shot from the barrel while observing safety precautions.
3. At the end of firing, fuses and tubes of shells prepared for loading must be installed at the factory settings, and the removed caps must be put on. To ensure tightness, the threads of the safety caps must be lubricated before screwing on.
4. The removed additional bundles and reinforced covers of the prepared charges are placed in the sleeve, and the joints between the reinforced cover and the walls of the sleeve are covered with the lubricant remaining on the cover.
5. Shots for which the safety caps (caps) have been removed from the tubes and fuses or the caps of the charges have been opened must be expended first the next time the fire is opened.
6. The remaining bundles of gunpowder, spent cartridges, safety caps and empty caps with a full set of fittings after completing the charges are handed over to the missile and artillery weapons service.
7. For spent brass cartridges, after finishing firing, it is necessary to clean the inner surface of powder deposits using local materials (sand, water, rags, etc.), and then wipe dry. The shells, cleaned of carbon deposits, are lubricated over the entire surface inside and outside with a thin layer of lubricant, placed in empty boxes and secured with liners.
8. After finishing firing, steel cartridges are not washed with water, but after wiping with a rag, they are lubricated with any lubricant.
6. Bringing ammunition to its final loaded state
Incompletely loaded artillery rounds are brought into their final loaded form by screwing the fuses into the shells before they are released for firing.
Bringing the shots (shells) to their final loaded form with cored fuses is carried out in a dugout, cabin or ditch with a depth of at least 1.5 m and a base area of 1.5 x 1.5 m.
When screwing in and punching fuses, there should be no more than one projectile in the cabin, dugout or ditch.
Before screwing in the fuse, the blank plug is unscrewed from the shell point, while the clamping screw (where available) is loosened. Then the thread of the goggle is wiped with a dry cloth to remove excess lubricant.
Pay special attention to removing grease, dust and sand from the explosive cut.
After removing the lubricant, the fuse intended for it is screwed into the shell end, and the threaded threads of the fuse are pre-lubricated with projectile lubricant or gun lubricant. When screwing in the fuse, do not allow lubricant to come into contact with the explosive cut.
The fuse is screwed in with a special key until the fuse is pressed tightly against the head end of the projectile. In this case, hitting the key is not allowed.
The screwed fuse in the shell of the projectile is secured with a clamping screw included in the projectile. In steel shells that do not have clamping screws, the fuses are secured by punching into the joint at four opposite points equidistant around the circumference of the joint. Punching should be done only by pressure using hand-held PKV-U devices or mechanical machines.
In steel cast iron shells, the fuses are not cored, but are screwed into varnish No. 67.
Fuses intended for loading projectiles are preliminarily inspected. Fuzes without installed marks, with cracks and dents on the body (mechanical damage), with clogged threads, dented safety caps and damaged membranes are not allowed for equipment.
7. Installation of fuses and tubes
Installation of fuses and tubes is carried out using service keys from the gun spare parts kit immediately before firing after a command received from the battery command post or the senior artillery commander (chief) by the crew number - the installer.
Table of fuses settings for 122 mm G D-30
Table 4.
Brand of explosion body (tube) | Required projectile action | Shooting setup | Field (factory) installation |
||
Cap | |||||
Cumulative | The cap is on |
||||
Cumulative | |||||
Cumulative | The cap is on |
||||
Cumulative | |||||
Shrapnel High explosive Ricochet or high-explosive with deceleration. Smoke (when firing a D4 projectile). | “Adult Osk.” “Adult Fugue.” “Adult Deputy.” “Adult Osk.” | The cap is screwed on, the tap is on “O”. |
|||
Air gap. | “Fuse 00” (number of divisions). | Ring on “UD”. |
|||
Illumination when firing the S-463Zh (S-463) projectile. Propaganda when firing an A1 projectile (A1D, A1ZhD). | “Tube 00” (number of divisions). | The safety cap has been removed. Ring for the commanded number of divisions. | Ring for 165 parts. The safety cap is screwed on. |
||
Illumination when firing a S4Zh (S4) projectile. | “Tube 00” (number of divisions). | The safety cap has been removed. The ballistic cap is rotated by the commanded number of divisions. | The installation groove and the protrusion are aligned. The safety cap is screwed on. |
||
Air gap. | “Around with RV. Explosive number of divisions), low (high)”. “Around with RV. Fuze 80". | Accordingly communication with the team. |
On “N” or | Switch “N”, distance ring on “UD”, safety nitial number The pack is on. |
|
Air gap. | “Around with RV. Explosion number of divisions), low (high)". “Around with RV. Fuse on impact.” | Accordingly communication with the team. |
On “N” or | Switch to “H”, spacer ring to “8”, safety cap on. |
|
Air gap. | “Sh1 shell. Tube 00 (number of divisions).” “Sh1 shell. Kar-flow.” | Accordingly communication with the team. | The distance ring is on “P”, the safety cap is on. |
8. Composition of charges
The composition of combat charges is carried out immediately before firing after a command received from the battery command post or the senior artillery commander (chief) with the crew number - charging.
Table of charges for 122 mm G D-30
Table 5.
Charge name | Charge composition | Compilation |
Special | One package | Remove the reinforced cover. |
Full | One package | Remove the reinforced cover (when firing cumulative projectiles). |
Decreased | Basic package + uneven But spring beam + three upper equilibrium beams. | |
First | Basic package + uneven But spring beam + two equilibrium beams. | Remove the top equilibrium bundle. |
Second | Basic package + uneven But spring beam + equilibrium beam. | Remove the top two equilibrium bundles. |
Third | Basic package + uneven But spring bun. | Take out three equilibrium bundles. |
Fourth | Basic package. | Take out three equilibrium beams and one nonequilibrium one. |
9. Measurement of charge temperature.
The charge temperature is measured with a battery thermometer in one of the central drawers of the stack every 1-2 hours.
To ensure the same temperature of the charges, boxes with shots or cartridges with charges laid out from boxes should be securely covered during the day to protect them from heating by the sun, and from cooling at night.
Charge covers for all guns must be of the same type.
To measure the temperature of the charges, remove the reinforced and normal caps from the cartridge case of one of the charges and insert a thermometer into the cartridge case between the gunpowder bundles, after which the lids are inserted into the cartridge case. The sleeve with the thermometer is placed in the middle between the other sleeves. Thermometers are placed in the charges, if possible, no later than an hour and a half before firing. The thermometer reading is taken no earlier than 10 minutes after placing the sleeve with the thermometer in the stack.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST
1. Ground artillery ammunition. Textbook. Part 1. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1970. - 120-124, 145-150, 168-229 p.
2. Firing tables for flat and mountain conditions of the 122 mm D-30 howitzer. TS RG No. 000. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1993. - 6-8, 246, 267-271, 274-285 p.
3. Addition No. 2 to TS RG No. 000. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1992. - 7, 106-109, 111 p.
4. Guide to the combat work of artillery fire units. - M.: Military Publishing House, 2002. - 124-132 p.
1. PAINTING OF AMMUNITION………………………………………………………......3
2. MARKING OF AMMUNITION……………………………………………………3
2.1. Approximate markings on shells……………………………..6
2.2. Approximate markings on cartridges……………………………..14
3. CAPING AMMUNITION………………………………………………………17
3.1. Approximate markings on the closure……………………………17
4. HANDLING AMMUNITION DURING TRANSPORTATION……18
5. HANDLING AMMUNITION AT THE OP……………………………19
6. BRINGING AMMUNITION TO FINALLY LOADED FORM………………………………………………………………………………………..24
7. INSTALLATION OF FUSES, PIPES…………………………….25
8. COMPOSITION OF CHARGES……………………………………………27
9. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE OF CHARGES……………………………...27
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST……………………………………………………….28
Educational edition
Valery Dmitrievich Parfenov,
lieutenant colonel, senior lecturer of the shooting and fire control cycle
ARTILLERY WEAPONS
MARKING, PAINTING AND CAPING OF AMMUNITION. HANDLING AMMUNITION AT THE FIRE POSITION AND DURING TRANSPORTATION. INSTALLATION OF FUSES, PIPES. COMPOSITION OF CHARGES. CHARGE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. BRINGING AMMUNITION TO FINALLY LOADED FORM.
To quickly and accurately determine the purpose of ammunition, its calibers and other basic characteristics necessary for proper configuration and operation, branding, painting and marking of ammunition are used.
Data on the manufacture of the projectile body, cartridge case, fuse, and ignition means are applied in the form of marks, and information about the type and equipment of the projectile, the manufacture of gunpowder and combat charge are applied in the form of markings and distinctive coloring.
Branding
Stamps are signs (letters, numbers) extruded or stamped on the outer surface of projectiles, fuses or tubes, cartridges and ignition means.
Artillery shells have main and backup marks (Fig. 1).
The main marks include signs showing the plant number 3, batch number 4 and year of manufacture 5 , shell (bottom) of the projectile, metal smelting number 1, stamp of the technical control department of the plant 6, stamp of the military representative of the GRAU 8 and Brinell sample imprint 2.
Stamps are applied on the outer surface of the projectile by the manufacturer in accordance with the drawing. Their location can be different and depends on the caliber of the projectile, the metal and the design of its shell.
If the projectile has a screw head or screw bottom, then the factory number, batch and year of manufacture of these elements are also applied to them.
For armor-piercing tracer shells, the batch number, quality control department stamp and military representative's stamp are placed on the leading belt. This is explained by the fact that these marks are applied after heat treatment of the body. Duplicate marks are applied at factories that produce equipment for projectiles and serve in case of loss of markings. These include: code of the explosive (smoke-forming) substance 7 with which the projectile is equipped, and weight (ballistic) marks 9.The meaning of marks on mines is the same as on artillery shells.
They are located on the tail section and on the mine stabilizer tube.
The contents and meaning of marks on warheads, missile parts and rocket candles do not differ from the generally established marks on shells of shells and mines.
The marks on fuses and tubes (Fig. 2) indicate:
· fuse brand 1 (established abbreviated name);
· manufacturer code 2 (number or initial letters);
· production batch number 3;
· year of manufacture 4.
In addition, on the rings of pyrotechnic remote fuses and tubes, the batch number of pressing the remote composition 5 is indicated.
On head fuses, stamps are applied on the side surface of the body. On bottom fuses that have a tracer - along the circumference of the body flange, and in the absence of a tracer - directly on the bottom section of the body. On remote fuses and tubes, similar marks are located on the outer surface of the housing plate so that they can be seen when the sealing cap is screwed on.
Stamps on cartridge cases (Fig. 3) and capsule bushings (Fig. 4) are placed only on the bottom.
Ammunition painting
The coloring of ammunition is divided into protective and distinctive.
Preservative painting serves to protect metal from corrosion. In peacetime, the outer surface of all shells and mines with a caliber of more than 37 mm is painted with gray paint or another paint specified by the technical specifications. The exceptions are practical shells, which are painted black, and propaganda shells and mines, which are painted red. Projectiles of calibers of 37 mm and less, as well as the centering bulges and leading bands of all projectiles, are not painted.
In addition, for projectiles intended for unitary loading shots, the junction of the projectile with the cartridge case is not painted. All unpainted elements of shells and mines are coated with colorless varnish.
In wartime, protective painting, as a rule, is not applied to shells and mines with a caliber of up to 203 mm. A lubricant is used as an anti-corrosion coating, which must be removed before firing at the firing position.
Distinctive coloring is applied to some shells, mines, casings, fuzes and primer bushings.
On shells and mines, distinctive coloring is usually applied in the form of colored ring stripes.
Distinctive stripes applied to the head of the projectile (mine) or under the upper centering thickening indicate the type of projectile and make it easier to recognize them by purpose.
The colors, location and meaning of distinctive markings on shells and mines are given in Table. 1.
Rice. 2. Stamps on fuses and tubes
To distinguish streamlined sub-caliber projectiles from other armor-piercing tracer projectiles, their 35 mm warhead is painted red.
Table 1
For fragmentation and smoke shells, the bodies of which are made of steel cast iron, a continuous black annular strip is applied above the lower centering thickening or leading belt. Thus, a steel cast iron smoke projectile will have two black stripes - one on the head and the other above the lower centering thickening. All other shells are easily recognized by their appearance and do not have a distinctive color.
On cartridge cases of unitary loading shots assembled with a reduced charge, a solid black ring stripe is applied above the marking. The same stripe applied to the cartridge case for a shot of separate cartridge loading indicates that the cartridge case contains a special charge intended for firing an armor-piercing tracer projectile.
A distinctive color is applied to fuses and tubes if there are several samples that are similar in appearance, but different in their effect on the target or purpose.
A distinctive color is applied to capsule bushings only after they have been restored. After the first restoration, one white stripe 5 mm wide is applied along the chord of the bottom cut of the capsule bushings, and after the secondary restoration, two white parallel stripes, each 5 mm wide, are applied.
Ammunition indexing
All artillery weapons, including ammunition, are divided into ten sections (types).
Department numbers have a two-digit number and begin with the number 5. If there is another number at the beginning of the department number, then this means that this item is not under the jurisdiction of the GRAU.
Shots, shells, mines, fuses, tubes and their capping are assigned to the 53rd department; charges, cartridges, ignition means, auxiliary elements of shots and their closure - to the 54th department; small arms ammunition and hand grenades - to the 57th department. Each item is assigned a short symbol - an index.
In ammunition, indices are assigned to artillery rounds, their elements and closures.
Indexes can be full or abbreviated.
The full index consists of two numbers in front, one - three letters in the middle, and three numbers to the right of the letters.
For example, 53-UOF-412. The first two digits indicate the weapons department to which the sample belongs, the letters indicate the type of sample (in most cases they are the initial letters of the sample name), the last three digits indicate the sample number.
If a shot or its element (projectile, charge) is adopted for firing from a specific weapon (mortar), then it is assigned the same number as the weapon. If the shot element is intended for firing from different guns of the same caliber, then a zero is placed instead of the last digit of the index. For example: 53-G-530.
The meanings of the letters included in the ammunition indices are given in table. 2.
| Weapons department no. | Letter designations | Name of items |
| U | Unitary cartridge | |
| IN | Separately loaded shot | |
| F | High Explosive Grenade | |
| ABOUT | Frag grenade | |
| OF | High explosive fragmentation grenade | |
| OR | Fragmentation tracer projectile | |
| OZR | Fragmentation-incendiary-tracer projectile | |
| BR | Armor-piercing tracer projectile | |
| BP | HEAT rotating projectile | |
| BC | Cumulative non-rotating projectile | |
| G | Concrete-piercing projectile | |
| D | Smoke shell | |
| Incendiary projectile | ||
| WITH | Lighting projectile | |
| A | Propaganda projectile | |
| PBR | Practical armor-piercing tracer projectile |
In the case when a new model of ammunition is adopted for service, similar in purpose and name to an existing model for a given weapon, but having features that affect ballistics or operational properties. one to three letters are placed at the end of the index.
For example, a 100-mm field gun mod. 1944 had an armor-piercing tracer pointed-head projectile index 53-BR-412. A 100-mm armor-piercing tracer projectile with a blunt point and a ballistic tip is being adopted. Unlike the first one, it is assigned the index 53-BR-412B. Later, the same gun was equipped with an armor-piercing tracer projectile with improved armor penetration (a projectile with armor-piercing and ballistic tips), which was assigned the index 53-BR-412D.
The abbreviated index differs from the full index in that it does not have a first two-digit number. For example, BR-412D; UOF-412U.
The markings on shots, shells, mines, cartridges and closures are marked with an abbreviated index, and the markings on caps and ammunition cases, as well as in technical documents, are marked with a full index.
Marking
Markings are inscriptions and symbols painted on ammunition and its closure.
Markings are applied to shells, mines, cartridges, caps and their sealing with special black paint. Practical equipment painted black is marked with white paint.
Marking of projectiles. Markings are applied to the head and cylindrical parts of the projectile (Fig. 5). On the head part there is information about the equipment of the projectile. These include: code of the explosive 6 with which the projectile is loaded, number of the loading plant 1, batch 2 and year of the equipment 3. On the cylindrical part there is an abbreviated name (index) 8, projectile caliber 4 and ballistic (weight) marks 5. For armor-piercing tracer projectiles except of the above data, under the code of the explosive, the mark of the bottom fuse 9 is applied, with which the projectile is brought into its final loaded form.
Codes are used to abbreviate explosive, smoke-producing and toxic substances.
The most common explosives used to fill projectiles have the following codes:
· TNT – t;
· TNT with a smoke-reinforcing block - TDU;
· TNT with dinitronaphthalene – TD-50, TD-58;
· TNT with hexogen – TG-50;
· TNT, hexogen, aluminum, golovax – TGAG-5;
· ammotol – A-40, A-50, A-60, A-80, A-90 (the figure shows the percentage of ammonium nitrate);
· ammotol with TNT stopper – AT-40, AT-50, etc.;
· phlegmatized hexogen – A-IX-1;
phlegmatized hexogen with aluminum powder – A-IX-2
On smoke shells, instead of the explosive code, the smoke-forming substance code 7 is placed.
The weight (ballistic) sign applied to the projectile shows the deviation of the weight of a given projectile from the table weight. If the projectile has a table weight or a deviation from it upward or downward of no more than 1/3%, then the letter H is written, which means the weight is normal. If the weight of the projectile deviates from the table by more than 1/3%, then this is reflected by the “plus” or “minus” signs. For each sign, a weight fluctuation is given within 2/3% of the table value (Table 3).
Table 3. Values of weight marks marked on projectiles
Note. Shells with the LG and TZh marks are allowed only in wartime with special permission from the GRAU.
Marking on the sleeve. Markings are applied to the body of the cartridge case with the charge by the artillery base that assembled the unitary loading shot or the charge of the separate loading shot.
The markings indicate: abbreviated shot index 2, caliber and abbreviated name of the artillery system from which shot 3 is intended, grade of gunpowder 4, batch number 5 and year of manufacture of gunpowder 6, powder factory code 7, batch number 8, year of assembly 9 and number of the base (arsenal) 10, which collected the shot.
Instead of a shot index, a charge index is applied to the cartridge case for a shot of separate cartridge loading.
If the charge is assembled with a phlegmatizer, then the letter “F” is placed below the shot assembly data 11. In some cases, the markings on the cartridge case may be supplemented with the inscriptions 1: “Full variable”, “Reduced”, “Special”, etc.
Marking on the closure. Markings on the sealed box containing the shots indicate:
– on the front wall of the box – abbreviated designation of gun 1, for which the shots are intended to be fired, type of combat charge 2, type of projectile 3, weight sign 4, number of shots in the box 5, batch of shots assembled, year of assembly and number of the base that collected the shots 6 , brand of head fuses 7 screwed into shells, factory number, batch and year of manufacture of fuses 8, month, year and number of base 9, which carried out bringing the shots into their final loaded form; if the shots are stored in an incompletely loaded form, then the fuse marking is not applied to the front wall of the box;
– on the end wall of the box – shell index 10, loading plant number 11, batch 12 and year the shells were loaded 13, explosive code 14, if the box contains shots with armor-piercing tracer shells, then after the explosive code the brand of the bottom fuse with which the projectile was fired is indicated in a fully equipped state;
– on the lid of the box there is a danger sign and a load discharge 15.
What makes a heavy artillery shell fly out of the barrel at great speed and fall far from the gun, tens of kilometers away?
What force throws the projectile out of the gun?
In ancient times, the elasticity of tightly twisted ropes made from ox guts or sinews was used to throw stone projectiles from a catapult.
The elasticity of wood or metal was used to throw arrows from bows.
The principle of operation of the catapult and bow is quite clear.
What is the principle of the design and operation of a firearm?
A modern firearm is a complex fighting machine that consists of many different parts and mechanisms. Depending on their purpose, artillery pieces are very diverse in appearance. However, the main parts and mechanisms of all weapons differ little from each other in terms of design and operation.
Let's get acquainted with the general structure of the weapon (Fig. 31).
The gun consists of a barrel with a bolt and a carriage. These are the main parts of any weapon.
The barrel serves to direct the movement of the projectile. In addition, a rotational movement is imparted to the projectile in the rifled barrel.
The bolt closes the bore. It opens easily and simply to load the gun and ejects the cartridge case. When loading, the bolt also closes easily and is firmly connected to the barrel. After closing the shutter, a shot is fired using a percussion mechanism.
The carriage is intended for attaching the barrel, to give it the position necessary for firing, and in field guns the carriage, in addition, serves as a vehicle for the gun in marching motion. (68)
The carriage consists of many parts and mechanisms. The base of the carriage is the lower machine with frames and running gear (Fig. 32).
When firing from a gun, the frames are moved apart and secured in the extended position, and moved for marching movement. By spreading the frames when firing the gun, good lateral stability and large horizontal fire are ensured. There are coulters at the ends of the beds. They secure the gun to the ground from longitudinal movement when fired.
The chassis consists of wheels and a suspension mechanism, which elastically connects the wheels to the lower machine during travel (with the beds folded together). During shooting, the suspension must be turned off; this is done automatically when the beds are opened.
The lower machine of the carriage houses the rotating part of the gun, which consists of the upper machine, aiming mechanisms (rotary and lifting), a balancing mechanism, sighting devices, a cradle and recoil devices. (69)
The upper machine (see Fig. 32) is the base of the rotating part of the tool. A cradle with a barrel and recoil devices, or a swinging part of the gun, is attached to it using trunnions.
The rotation of the upper machine on the lower one is carried out by a rotating mechanism, which ensures a large horizontal fire of the gun. The rotation of the cradle with the barrel on the upper machine is carried out using a lifting mechanism, which gives the barrel the required elevation angle. This is how the gun is aimed in the horizontal and vertical directions.
The balancing mechanism is designed to balance the swinging part and to facilitate manual operation of the lifting mechanism.
Using sighting devices, the gun is aimed at the target. The required horizontal and vertical angles are set on the sighting devices, which are then given to the barrel using aiming mechanisms.
Recoil devices reduce the effect of a shot on a gun and ensure the immobility and stability of the gun during firing. They consist of a rollback brake and a knurler. The recoil brake absorbs recoil energy when fired, and the knurl returns the rolled barrel to its original position and holds it in this position at all elevation angles. To reduce the effect of recoil on the gun, a muzzle brake is also used.
The shield cover protects the gun crew, that is, the artillerymen who perform combat work at the gun, from bullets and fragments of enemy shells.
This is a general, very brief description of a modern weapon. The structure and operation of individual parts and mechanisms of the weapon will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters.
In a modern artillery gun, powder gases, the energy of which has a special property, are used to eject shells from the barrel.
When operating the catapult, the people serving it tightly twisted ropes made of ox guts so that they would then throw the stone with great force. A lot of time and energy had to be spent on this. When shooting a bow, you had to pull the string with force.
A modern artillery gun requires us to expend relatively little effort before firing. The work done in a gun when fired is produced by the energy hidden in the gunpowder.
Before firing, a shell and a charge of gunpowder are inserted into the gun barrel. When fired, the powder charge burns and turns into gases, which at the moment of their formation have very high elasticity. These gases begin to press with enormous force in all directions (Fig. 33), and consequently, to the bottom of the projectile. (70)
Powder gases can escape from a confined space only towards the projectile, since under the influence of the gases the projectile begins to quickly move along the bore and flies out of it at a very high speed.
This is the peculiarity of the energy of powder gases - it is hidden in gunpowder until we light it and until it turns into gases; then the energy of the gunpowder is released and produces the work we need.
IS IT POSSIBLE TO REPLACE GUNDOWDER WITH GASOLINE?
It's not just gunpowder that has latent energy; firewood, coal, kerosene, and gasoline also have energy that is released during their combustion and can be used to produce work.
So why not use another fuel, such as gasoline, for the shot instead of gunpowder? When burned, gasoline also turns into gases. Why not place a tank of gasoline above the gun and feed it through a tube into the barrel? Then, when loading, you will only need to insert the projectile, and the “charge” itself will flow into the barrel - you just have to open the tap!
It would be very convenient. And the quality of gasoline as a fuel is, perhaps, higher than the quality of gunpowder: if you burn 1 kilogram of gasoline, 10,000 large calories of heat are released, and 1 kilogram of smokeless gunpowder produces approximately 800 calories when burned, that is, 12 times less than gasoline. This means that a kilogram of gasoline provides as much heat as is needed to heat 10,000 liters of water by one degree, and a kilogram of gunpowder can heat only 800 liters of water by one degree.
Why don't they "shoot" gasoline?
To answer this question, we need to find out how gasoline burns and how gunpowder burns. (71)
In the open air, both gasoline and smokeless powder burn not very slowly, but also not very quickly. They burn but don't explode. There is not much difference between gasoline and gunpowder.
But gasoline and gunpowder behave completely differently if they are placed in a closed space, closed on all sides, deprived of air flow, for example, behind a projectile in a gun barrel tightly closed by a bolt. In this case, gasoline will not burn: its combustion requires an influx of air, an influx of oxygen.
Gunpowder in a closed space will burn very quickly: it will explode and turn into gases.
The combustion of gunpowder in a closed space is a very complex, peculiar phenomenon, not at all similar to ordinary combustion. This phenomenon is called explosive decomposition, explosive transformation or simply explosion, only conditionally retaining the more familiar name “combustion”.
Why does gunpowder burn and even explode without air?
Because the gunpowder itself contains oxygen, due to which combustion occurs.
In a confined space, gunpowder burns extremely quickly, a lot of gases are released, and their temperature is very high. This is the essence of an explosion; This is the difference between an explosion and ordinary combustion.
So, in order to get an explosion of smokeless powder, you must ignite it in a confined space. The flame will then spread very quickly, almost instantly, over the entire surface of the gunpowder - it will ignite. The gunpowder will quickly burn and turn into gases.
This is how the explosion proceeds. It is possible only in the presence of oxygen in the explosive itself.
This is precisely the peculiarity of gunpowder and almost all other explosives: they themselves contain oxygen, and when burning they do not need an influx of oxygen from the outside.
Let's take, for example, gunpowder, which has been used in warfare since ancient times: smoky, black powder. It contains coal, saltpeter and sulfur mixed. The fuel here is coal. Nitrate contains oxygen. And sulfur was introduced so that the gunpowder would ignite more easily; In addition, sulfur serves as a bonding agent; it connects coal with saltpeter. During an explosion, not all of this powder turns into gases. A significant part of the burnt gunpowder in the form of tiny solid parts is deposited on the walls of the barrel bore (carbon deposits) and is emitted into the air in the form of smoke. That's why this kind of gunpowder is called smoky.
Modern guns usually use smokeless, pyroxylin or nitroglycerin gunpowder.
Smokeless powder, like smoky powder, contains oxygen. During an explosion, this oxygen is released, and due to it, the combustion of gunpowder occurs. When burned, smokeless powder turns into gases and does not produce smoke. (72)
So, gunpowder cannot be replaced with gasoline: gunpowder contains everything that is needed for its combustion, but gasoline does not contain oxygen. Therefore, when it is necessary to achieve rapid combustion of gasoline in a closed space, for example in the cylinder of a car engine, it is necessary to arrange special complex devices to pre-mix gasoline with air - to prepare a combustible mixture.
Let's do a simple calculation.
We have already said that 1 kilogram of gasoline, when burned, produces 10,000 large calories of heat. But it turns out that for every kilogram of gasoline to burn, you need to add 15.5 kilograms of air to it. This means that 10,000 calories come not from 1 kilogram of gasoline, but from 16.5 kilograms of combustible mixture. One kilogram of it releases only about 610 calories when burned. This is less than 1 kilogram of gunpowder.
As you can see, the mixture of gasoline and air is inferior to gunpowder in caloric content.
However, this is not the main thing. The main thing is that when gunpowder explodes, a lot of gases are formed. The volume of gases formed during the combustion of one liter of a mixture of gasoline with air, as well as one liter of smoke and one liter of smokeless pyroxylin powder, is shown in Fig. 34.
| {73} |
This is the volume that gases would occupy when cooled to zero degrees C at a pressure of one atmosphere, that is, at normal pressure. And the volume of powder gases at the explosion temperature (again, at a pressure of one atmosphere) will be many times greater.
From Fig. 34 it can be seen that pyroxylin powder emits gases more than 4 times more than black powder with equal amounts by weight. Therefore, pyroxylin powder is stronger than black powder.
But this does not exhaust the advantages of gunpowder over conventional fuel, such as gasoline. The rate of conversion of gunpowder into gases is of enormous importance.
The explosive transformation of a powder charge during a shot lasts only a few thousandths of a second. The gasoline mixture in the engine cylinder burns 10 times slower.
The powder charge of a 76mm gun is completely converted to gases in less than 6 thousandths (0.006) of a second.
Such a short period of time is even difficult to imagine. After all, a “blink” - the blinking of a human eyelid - lasts about a third of a second. The powder charge explodes 50 times faster.
The explosion of a smokeless powder charge creates enormous pressure in the gun barrel: up to 3000–3500 atmospheres, that is, 3000–3500 kilograms per square centimeter.
With high pressure of powder gases and a very short time of explosive transformation, the enormous power that the firing weapon possesses is created. None of the other fuels can create such power under the same conditions.
EXPLOSION AND DETONATION
In the open air, smokeless powder burns quietly and does not explode. Therefore, when burning a tube of smokeless powder (Fig. 35)
| {74} |
In the open air, you can use a clock to track the time of its burning: meanwhile, even the most accurate stopwatch cannot measure the time of explosive transformation of the same gunpowder in a gun. How can we explain this?
It turns out that it all depends on the conditions under which gases are formed.
When gunpowder burns in the open air, the resulting gases quickly dissipate: nothing holds them back. The pressure around the burning powder almost does not increase, and the burning rate is relatively low.
In a confined space, the gases formed have no outlet. They fill all the space. Their blood pressure rises quickly. Under the influence of this pressure, the explosive transformation occurs very energetically, that is, all the gunpowder turns into gases with extreme speed. The result is no longer ordinary combustion, but an explosion (see Fig. 35).
The greater the pressure around the burning gunpowder, the greater the speed of the explosion. By increasing this pressure, we can achieve a very high explosion speed. Such an explosion, occurring at a tremendous speed, tens and even hundreds of times greater than the speed of a conventional explosion, is called detonation. With such an explosion, ignition and explosive transformation seem to merge, occurring almost simultaneously, within a few hundred thousandths of a second.
The speed of the explosion depends not only on pressure. You can sometimes get detonation without applying much pressure.
What is better for shooting - an ordinary explosion or detonation?
The speed of detonation is much greater than the speed of an ordinary explosion. Perhaps the work done by gases during detonations will be greater?
Let's try to replace the explosion with detonation: for this, let's create a higher pressure in the barrel than what is usually obtained when the gunpowder is ignited.
To do this, fill the entire space in the barrel behind the projectile with gunpowder to capacity. Now let's ignite the gunpowder.
What will happen?
The very first portions of gas, having no outlet, create very high pressure in the barrel. Under the influence of such pressure, all the gunpowder will immediately turn into gases, this will increase the pressure many times more. All this will happen in a period of time immeasurably shorter than during an ordinary explosion. It will no longer be measured in thousandths, but in ten-thousandths and even hundred-thousandths of a second!
But what happened to the weapon?
Look at fig. 36.
The barrel couldn't stand it! (75)
The projectile had not yet even started moving when the enormous pressure of the gases already tore the barrel into pieces.
This means that the excessive speed of the explosion is not suitable for shooting. You cannot fill the entire space behind the projectile with gunpowder and thus create excessive pressure. In this case, the weapon may explode.
Therefore, when composing a charge of gunpowder, one never forgets about the space in which the gunpowder will be exploded, that is, about the volume of the so-called charging chamber of the gun. The ratio of the weight of the charge in kilograms to the volume of the charging chamber in liters is called the loading density (Fig. 37). If the charging density exceeds a known limit, there is a danger of detonation. Typically, the loading density in guns does not exceed 0.5–0.7 kilograms of gunpowder per 1 liter of charging chamber volume.
There are, however, substances that are manufactured specifically to produce detonation. These are high explosives or crushing explosives, such as pyroxylin and TNT. In contrast, gunpowder is called propellant explosives.
High explosives have interesting properties. For example, one of the destructive blasting substances - pyroxylin - was used about 100 years ago without any fear for the most peaceful purposes: for lighting candles in chandeliers. The pyroxylin cord was set on fire, and it burned completely calmly, slightly smoking, without an explosion, lighting one candle after another. The same pyroxylin, if dried and enclosed in a shell, explodes from impact or friction. And if there is an explosion of fulminate of mercury nearby, the dry pyroxylin will detonate.
Wet pyroxylin burns calmly when touched by a flame, but unlike dry pyroxylin it does not explode upon impact and does not detonate during an explosion of fulminate of mercury that occurs next door. (76)
Why does pyroxylin behave differently under different circumstances: sometimes it burns, sometimes it explodes, and sometimes it detonates?
The strength of the chemical connection of molecules, the chemical and physical nature of the substance and the ability of the substance play a role here. 
to explosive transformation.
Other high explosives also behave differently. For some blasting substances, the touch of a flame is enough for an explosive transformation; for others, the explosive transformation occurs from an impact; for others, it occurs only with a strong shaking of the molecules caused by the explosion of another explosive. The shock from the explosion spreads quite far, tens of meters. Therefore, many high explosives can detonate even when the explosion of the same or another high explosive occurs quite far from them.
During detonation, all high explosives are almost instantly converted into gases. In this case, the gases do not have time to spread in the air as they form. They strive to expand with tremendous speed and force and destroy everything in their path.
The closer to the explosive there is an obstacle that prevents the spread of gases, the stronger the impact of the gases on this obstacle. That is why a blasting substance, exploding in a vessel closed with a lid, crushes the vessel into small parts, and the lid of the vessel flies off to the side, but usually remains intact (Fig. 38).
Is it possible to use high explosives to load a gun?
Of course not. We already know that when gunpowder detonates, the gun barrel ruptures. The same thing would happen if we put a charge of high explosive into the weapon.
Therefore, high explosives serve mainly to fill the chambers of artillery shells. Blasting substances that are slightly sensitive to impact, such as TNT, are placed inside projectiles and are forced to detonate when the projectile meets the target. (77)
Some explosives are extremely sensitive: mercury fulminate, for example, explodes from a slight puncture or even from a shock.
The sensitivity of such explosives is used to ignite the powder charge and to detonate high explosives. These substances are called initiators. In addition to mercury fulminate, initiating substances include lead azide, lead trinitroresorcinate (TNRS) and others.
To ignite a powder charge, small portions of mercury fulminate are most often used.
However, mercury fulminate cannot be used in its pure form - it is too sensitive; mercury fulminate can explode and ignite a charge of gunpowder when it is not yet needed - from an accidental light impact during loading or even from shock while transporting charges. In addition, the flame from pure mercury fulminate does not ignite gunpowder well.
To use mercury fulminate, you need to reduce its sensitivity and increase its flammability. To do this, mercury fulminate is mixed with other substances: shellac, berthollet salt, antimonium. The resulting mixture ignites only with a strong blow or injection and is called an impact composition. The copper cup with the percussion compound placed in it is called a capsule.
When struck or punctured, the primer produces a very high-temperature flame that ignites the powder charge.
As we see, in artillery both initiating and propelling and high explosives are used, but only for different purposes. Initiating explosives are used to make primers, gunpowder is used to eject a projectile from a barrel, and high explosives are used to load most projectiles.
WHAT IS THE ENERGY OF POUNDER?
When fired, part of the energy contained in the gunpowder charge is converted into the energy of projectile motion.
While the charge is not yet ignited, it has potential or latent energy. It can be compared to the energy of water standing at a high level at the sluices of a mill when they are closed. The water is calm, the wheels are motionless (Fig. 39).
But. So we ignited the charge. An explosive transformation occurs - energy is released. Gunpowder turns into highly heated gases. Thus, the chemical energy of gunpowder is converted into mechanical energy, that is, into the energy of movement of gas particles. This movement of particles creates the pressure of the powder gases, which, in turn, causes the movement of the projectile: the energy of the gunpowder turned into the energy of projectile movement. (78)
It's like we opened the floodgates. A stormy stream of water rushed from a height and quickly spun the blades of the water wheel (see Fig. 39).
How much energy is contained in a charge of gunpowder, for example in a full charge of a 76 mm gun?
It's easy to calculate. A full charge of pyroxylin powder for a 76-mm gun weighs 1.08 kilograms. Each kilogram of such gunpowder releases 765 large calories of heat during combustion. Each large calorie, as we know, corresponds to 
427 kilograms of mechanical energy.
Thus, the energy contained in a full charge of a 76 mm gun is equal to: 1.08 × 765 × 427 = 352,000 kilograms.
What is a kilogram meter? This is the work that must be expended in order to lift one kilogram to a height of one meter (Fig. 40).
However, not all the energy of gunpowder is spent on pushing the projectile out of the gun, that is, on useful work. Most of the energy of the gunpowder is wasted: about 40% of the energy is not used at all, since some of the gases are uselessly ejected from the barrel after the ejected projectile, about 22% (79) is spent on heating the barrel, about 5% is spent on recoil and gas movement.
If we take into account all the losses, it turns out that only one third, or 33%, of the charge energy goes to useful work.
This is not so little. A gun as a machine has a fairly high efficiency. In the most advanced internal combustion engines, no more than 40% of all thermal energy is spent on useful work, and in steam engines, for example, in steam locomotives, no more than 20%.
So, 33% of 352,000 kilograms are spent on useful work in a 76-mm cannon, that is, about 117,000 kilograms.
And all this energy is released in just 6 thousandths of a second!
A simple calculation shows that the power of the gun is more than 260,000 horsepower. And what “horsepower” is can be seen from Fig. 41.
If people could do such work in such a short time, approximately half a million people would be required. This is the power of a shot from even a small cannon!
IS IT STILL POSSIBLE TO REPLACE GUNDPOWDER WITH SOMETHING?
The use of gunpowder as a source of enormous energy is associated with significant inconveniences.
For example, due to the very high pressure of powder gases, gun barrels have to be made very strong and heavy, and because of this, the mobility of the gun suffers.
In addition, when gunpowder explodes, an extremely high temperature develops (Fig. 42) - up to 3000 degrees. This is 4 times higher than the flame temperature of a gas burner!
1400 degrees of heat is enough to melt steel. The explosion temperature is thus more than twice the melting point of steel.
The gun barrel does not melt only because the high temperature of the explosion lasts for a negligibly short time and the barrel does not have time to heat up to the melting temperature of the steel. (80)
But still, the barrel gets very hot, and this is also facilitated by the friction of the projectile. When shooting for a long time, it is necessary to increase the time intervals between shots so that the barrel does not overheat. Some fast-firing small-caliber guns have special cooling systems.
All this, of course, creates inconvenience when shooting. In addition, high pressure, high temperature, as well as the chemical action of gases do not remain unnoticed by the barrel: its metal is gradually destroyed.
Finally, the inconvenience caused by the use of gunpowder also includes the fact that the shot is accompanied by a loud sound. Sound often reveals a hidden weapon and unmasks it.
As you can see, the use of gunpowder is associated with great inconvenience.
That is why they have long been trying to replace gunpowder with another source of energy.
Indeed, isn’t it strange that gunpowder still, like several centuries ago, reigns supreme in artillery? After all, over these centuries, technology has made great strides forward: from muscular strength they moved to the power of wind and water; then the steam engine was invented - the age of steam came; Then they began to use liquid fuels - oil, gasoline.
And finally, electricity penetrated into all areas of life.
Now we have access to such energy sources that six centuries ago, during the advent of gunpowder, people had no idea about.
Well, what about gunpowder? Can't it really be replaced with something more perfect?
Let's not talk about replacing gunpowder with other fuels. We have already seen the failure of this attempt using the example of gasoline. (81)
But why not, for example, use the energy of compressed air for shooting?
Attempts to introduce air guns and cannons into use have been made for a long time. But pneumatic weapons still did not become widespread. And it's clear why.
After all, in order to obtain the energy necessary for a shot, you must first expend much more energy to compress the air, since during a shot a significant part of the energy will inevitably be lost. While loading an air gun requires the energy of one person, loading an air gun requires the efforts of a large number of people or a special engine.
It is, however, possible to create a pneumatic gun with compressed air charges prepared in advance at factories. Then, when firing, it would be enough to put such a charge into the barrel and open its “lid” or “tap”.
There have been attempts to create such a weapon. However, they also turned out to be unsuccessful: firstly, difficulties arose in storing highly compressed air in a vessel; secondly, as calculations showed, such a pneumatic gun could throw a projectile at a lower speed than a firearm of the same weight.
Air guns cannot compete with firearms. Pneumatic guns, however, exist, but not as military weapons, but only for training shooting at a dozen or two meters.
The situation is even worse when using steam. Steam installations must be too complex and cumbersome to obtain the required pressure.
More than once attempts have been made to use a centrifugal throwing machine to throw projectiles.
Why not mount the projectile on a rapidly rotating disk? As the disk rotates, the projectile will tend to break away from it. If at a certain moment the projectile is released, it will fly, and its speed will be greater the faster the disk rotates. At first glance, the idea is very tempting. But only at first glance.
Accurate calculations show that such a throwing machine would be very large and cumbersome. It would require a powerful engine. And, most importantly, such a centrifugal machine could not “shoot” accurately: the slightest error in determining the moment of separation of the projectile from the disk would cause a sharp change in the direction of the projectile’s flight. And it is extremely difficult to release the projectile at exactly the right moment with the disk rotating quickly. Therefore, a centrifugal throwing machine cannot be used.
There remains one more type of energy - electricity. There are probably huge opportunities lurking here!
And so, two decades ago, an electric gun was built. True, not a combat sample, but a model. This model of electric (82) gun threw a projectile weighing 50 grams at a speed of 200 meters per second. No pressure, normal temperature, almost no sound. There are many advantages. Why not build a real military weapon based on the model?
It turns out it's not that simple.
The barrel of the electric gun must consist of conductor windings in the form of coils. When current flows through the windings, the steel projectile will be drawn successively into these coils by magnetic forces generated around the conductor. Thus, the projectile will receive the necessary acceleration and, after turning off the current from the windings, will fly out of the barrel by inertia.
An electric gun must receive energy to throw a projectile from the outside, from a source of electric current, in other words, from a machine. What should the power of a machine be to fire, for example, a 76 mm electric gun?
Let us remember that to throw a projectile from a 76-mm cannon, a huge energy of 117,000 kilograms is expended in six thousandths of a second, which is a power of 260,000 horsepower. The same power, of course, is required to fire a Tbg-millimeter electric cannon, throwing the same projectile over the same distance.
But energy losses are inevitable in a car. These losses can amount to at least 50% of the machine's power. This means that the machine with our electric gun must have a power of at least 500,000 horsepower. This is the power of a huge power plant.
You see that even a small electric weapon must be supplied with energy by a huge electrical station.
But not only is it necessary to impart the energy necessary for the movement of a projectile in an insignificant period of time, a current of enormous strength is needed; To do this, the power plant must have special equipment. The equipment used now will not withstand the “shock” that will follow during a “short circuit” of a very strong current.
If you increase the time the current affects the projectile, that is, reduce the power of the shot, then you will need to lengthen the barrel.
It is not at all necessary that the shot “last”, for example, one hundredth of a second. We could extend the firing time to one second, that is, increase it 100 times. But then the barrel would have to be lengthened by about the same amount. Otherwise, it will be impossible to impart the required speed to the projectile.
To throw a 76-mm projectile over a dozen kilometers with a shot lasting a full second, the barrel of the electric gun would have to be about 200 meters long. With such a barrel length, the power of the “throwing” power plant can be reduced by 100 times, that is, made equal to 5000 horsepower. But even this (83) power is quite large, and the gun is extremely long and cumbersome.
In Fig. 43 shows one of the electric gun projects. From the figure it is clear that one cannot even think about the movement of such a weapon with troops across the battlefield; it can only travel by rail.
However, the electric gun still has many advantages. First of all, there is not much pressure. This means that the shell can be made with thin walls and contain much more explosive than in a conventional cannon shell.
In addition, as calculations show, from an electric gun, with a very long barrel, it will be possible to shoot not tens, but hundreds of kilometers. This is beyond the capabilities of modern weapons.
Therefore, the use of electricity for ultra-long-range shooting in the future is very likely.
But this is a matter for the future. Now, in our time, gunpowder is indispensable in artillery; we, of course, need to continue to improve gunpowder and learn to use it in the best possible way. Our scientists have been and are doing this.
A FEW PAGES FROM THE HISTORY OF RUSSIAN GUNDOWPOWDER
In the old days, only black powder was known. This type of gunpowder was used in all armies until the second half of the 19th century, before the introduction of smokeless gunpowder. (84)
The methods for making black gunpowder have changed very little over the course of several centuries. Russian gunpowder masters already in the 15th–16th centuries knew very well the properties of the various components of gunpowder, so the gunpowder they produced had good qualities.
Until the 17th century, gunpowder was produced primarily by private individuals. Before the campaigns, these individuals were told how much “potion” the boyar, merchant or priest’s court should supply to the treasury. “And whoever makes an excuse that he can’t get the potion, send pearl (saltpetre) masters to them.”
Only in the 17th century did the production of gunpowder begin to be concentrated in the hands of the so-called gunpowder persuaders, that is, entrepreneurs who produced gunpowder under contracts with the state.
In the second decade of the 18th century, Russian craftsmen, and above all the outstanding master Ivan Leontyev, eagerly set to work to improve gunpowder production in the country. They found that gunpowder becomes loose and, therefore, loses the ability to impart the required speed to the projectile as a result of the fact that the powder mixture is pressed under relatively low pressure; Therefore, they decided to compact the powder mixture with millstones, using them as rollers.
This idea was not new. Back in the middle of the 17th century in Russia, stone millstones were used in powder mills. Receipts for payment of money for millstones for making the “potion” have still been preserved.
However, later millstones were no longer used, probably because when struck and pushed, the stone millstones produced a spark that ignited the powder mixture.
Ivan Leontyev and his students restored the old Russian method of manufacturing gunpowder using millstones and improved it - millstones began to be made of copper, the shape of the millstones was improved, automatic wetting of the mixture was introduced, etc. All these improvements in the production of gunpowder contributed to the advancement of Russian artillery to one of the first places in Europe.
Gunpowder for the Russian army was produced by the Okhtensky powder factory in St. Petersburg, founded by Peter I in 1715 and currently existing. For several decades, about 30–35 thousand pounds of gunpowder were produced in Russia per year. But at the end of the 18th century, Russia had to fight two wars almost simultaneously: with Turkey (in 1787–1791) and with Sweden (in 1788–1790). The army and navy required significantly more gunpowder, and in 1789 the gunpowder factories were given a huge order for that time: to produce 150 thousand pounds of gunpowder. In connection with the increase in gunpowder production by 4–5 times, it was necessary to expand existing factories and build new ones; In addition, significant improvements were introduced in the production of gunpowder. (85)
Nevertheless, work in gunpowder factories remained very dangerous and difficult. Constant inhalation of gunpowder dust caused pulmonary diseases, and consumption shortened the lives of powder workers. In the saltpeter varnishes, where the work was especially difficult, work teams changed weekly.
Unbearable working conditions forced workers to flee the gunpowder factories, although they were threatened with severe punishment for this.
An important step forward in the manufacture of black powder was the appearance of brown or chocolate prismatic powder. We already know from the first chapter what role this gunpowder played in military affairs.
In the 19th century, due to great achievements in the field of chemistry, new explosives were discovered, including new, smokeless gunpowder. Much credit for this belongs to Russian scientists.
Smokeless powder, as we already know, turned out to be much stronger than the old black powder. However, for a long time there was a debate about which of these gunpowders is better.
Meanwhile, the introduction of smokeless gunpowder in all armies proceeded as usual. The issue was resolved in favor of smokeless powder.
Smokeless powder is prepared mainly from pyroxylin or nitroglycerin.
Pyroxylin, or nitrocellulose, is obtained by treating fiber with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids; Chemists call this treatment nitration. Cotton wool or textile waste, flax tow, and wood cellulose are used as fiber.
Pyroxylin in appearance is almost no different from the original substance (cotton wool, flax waste, etc.); it is insoluble in water, but dissolves in a mixture of alcohol and ether.
The honor of discovering pyroxylin belongs to the remarkable Russian powder master, a graduate of the Mikhailovsky Artillery Academy, Alexander Alexandrovich Fadeev.
Before the discovery of pyroxylin, A. A. Fadeev found a wonderful way to safely store black powder in warehouses; he showed that if you mix black powder with coal and graphite, then when ignited in air, the gunpowder does not “explode, but only burns slowly. To prove the validity of his statement, A. A. Fadeev set fire to a barrel of such gunpowder. During this experience, he himself stood only three steps from the burning barrel. There was no explosion of gunpowder.
A description of the method of storing gunpowder proposed by A. A. Fadeev was published by the French Academy of Sciences, since this method was superior to all existing foreign methods.
Regarding the use of pyroxylin for the production of smokeless gunpowder, in the German newspaper Allgemeine Preussische Zeitung in 1846 it was published that in St. Petersburg Colonel Fadeev was already preparing “cotton gunpowder” and hoped to replace cotton wool with a cheaper material. (Biography of A. A. Fadeev. Magazine “Scout” No. 81, December 1891.) (86)
However, the tsarist government did not attach due importance to the invention of pyroxylin, and its production in Russia was established much later.
The famous Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907), having taken up the gunpowder business, decided to simplify and reduce the cost of making pyroxylin gunpowder. The solution to this problem was made easier after D.I. Mendeleev invented pyrocollodium, from which gunpowder could be obtained much more easily.
Pyrocollodium powder had excellent properties, but became widespread not in Russia, but in the USA. The “enterprising” ancestors of modern American imperialists stole the secret of making pyrocollodium gunpowder from the Russians, established the production of this gunpowder, and during the First World War supplied it to the warring countries in huge quantities, while receiving large profits.
In the production of pyroxylin powder, removing water from pyroxylin is very important. Back in 1890, D.I. Mendeleev proposed washing the pyroxylin mass with alcohol for this purpose, but this proposal was not accepted.
In 1892, an explosion of insufficiently dehydrated pyroxylin mass occurred at one of the gunpowder factories. After some time, the talented inventor nugget, chief fireworker Zakharov, who knew nothing about D.I. Mendeleev’s proposal, put forward the same project for dehydrating pyroxylin with alcohol; This time the proposal was accepted.
Nitroglycerin plays an equally important role in the production of smokeless powders.
Nitroglycerin is obtained by nitration of glycerol; In its pure form, nitroglycerin is a colorless transparent liquid resembling glycerin. Pure nitroglycerin can be stored for a very long time, but if water or acids are mixed with it, it begins to decompose, which ultimately leads to an explosion.
Back in 1852, the Russian scientist Vasily Fomich Petrushevsky, with the assistance of the famous Russian chemist N.N. Zimin, was engaged in experiments on the use of nitroglycerin as an explosive.
V. F. Petrushevsky was the first to develop a method for manufacturing nitroglycerin in significant quantities (before him, only laboratory doses were prepared).
The use of nitroglycerin in liquid form is associated with significant dangers, and great care must be taken when manufacturing this substance, which is extremely sensitive to shock, friction, etc.
V. F. Petrushevsky was the first to use nitroglycerin to produce dynamite and used this explosive in explosive shells and underwater mines. (87)
V.F. Petrushevsky's dynamite contained 75% nitroglycerin and 25% burnt magnesia, which was impregnated with nitroglycerin, that is, it served, as they say, as an absorber.
In a small reference on the history of the development of Russian gunpowder, it is not possible to even mention the names of all the wonderful Russian gunpowder scientists, through whose work our gunpowder industry has moved to one of the first places in the world.
REACTIVE FORCE
Gunpowder can be used to throw projectiles without the use of durable, heavy gun barrels.
Everyone knows the rocket. As we know, a barrel is not needed to propel a rocket. It turns out that the principle of rocket motion can be successfully used to throw artillery shells.
What is this principle?
It consists of using the so-called reactive force, which is why projectiles that use this force are called reactive.
In Fig. Figure 44 shows a rocket with a hole in the tail. After ignition of the gunpowder inside the rocket, the resulting powder gases will “flow” through the hole at high speed. When a stream of gases flows out of the powder combustion chamber, a force arises directed in the direction of the movement of the stream; the magnitude of this force depends on the mass of the escaping gases and the speed of their flow.
It is known from physics that for every action there is always an equal reaction. In short, we sometimes say this: “action is equal to reaction.” This means that in the case we are considering, when a force appears directed in the direction of the movement of gases, an equal in magnitude but oppositely directed force should arise, under the influence of which the rocket begins to move forward.
This oppositely directed force is, as it were, a reaction to the emergence of a force directed towards the outflow of gases; therefore it is called reactive force, and the movement of the rocket caused by reactive force is called jet propulsion. (88)
Let's see what advantages the use of reactive force provides.
The powder charge for throwing the rocket is placed in the projectile itself. This means that a gun barrel is not needed in this case, since the projectile acquires speed not under the influence of powder gases formed outside the projectile, but under the action of the reactive force developing in the projectile itself when fired.
To guide the movement of the rocket, a light “guide”, such as a rack, is sufficient. This is very beneficial, since without a barrel the gun is much lighter and more mobile.
It is easy to attach several guides to a rocket artillery gun (on a combat vehicle) and fire in one gulp, firing several rockets at the same time. The powerful effect of such volleys was tested by the experience of firing Soviet Katyushas during the Great Patriotic War.
The rocket projectile does not experience high external pressure like an artillery projectile in the bore. Therefore, its walls can be made thinner and, thanks to this, more explosive can be placed in the projectile.
These are the main advantages of rockets.
But there are also disadvantages. For example, when firing rocket artillery, the dispersion of shells is much greater than when shooting from canned artillery guns, which means that firing rocket artillery shells is less accurate.
Therefore, we use both guns, both shells, and use the pressure of the powder gases in the barrel and the reactive force to throw the shells.
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As part of the current modernization of the armed forces, it is proposed to supply not only new equipment and equipment, but also various auxiliary equipment. The other day it became known that the Ministry of Defense plans to eventually switch to using new containers for ammunition. Instead of the usual wooden closures, it is proposed to use new boxes of an original design for storage and transportation.
Deputy Minister of Defense General of the Army Dmitry Bulgakov spoke about plans to switch to new containers for ammunition. According to the deputy minister, next year the military department plans to begin full-scale use of new closures for ammunition. For the foreseeable future, only certain types of shells, etc. will be supplied in new boxes. products. The new closures have already been tested and can now be used by the military.
D. Bulgakov also spoke about some of the features of the new packaging. According to him, the new closures are made from modern materials whose characteristics are superior to wood. The main advantage over existing wooden boxes is fire resistance. The Deputy Minister of Defense explained that thanks to the use of special materials, the new box is capable of withstanding flames of up to 500°C for 15 minutes. This will allow the fire crew to arrive at the fire site on time and prevent the negative consequences of the fire. Also, the use of new containers will increase the shelf life of ammunition. When placed in storage, the new closure will last approximately 50 years.
General view of the new closure with a projectile
To date, according to D. Bulgakov, military tests of two types of new boxes have been carried out. The military checked containers for artillery shells of 152 and 30 mm caliber. The new type of closures are recognized as meeting the requirements, which opens the way for them to the troops. Based on the test results, it was decided to supply new shells of 30 and 152 mm calibers in new closures.
Soon photographs of promising containers for separately loaded artillery rounds appeared in the public domain. As follows from these photographs, when developing a new container, it was decided to create standardized boxes with the possibility of relatively simple adaptation to specific ammunition. For this purpose, the closure consists of several main parts: a unified box and lid, as well as inserts-cradles in which the “payload” is secured.
The main elements of a promising closure are a special plastic box of a rectangular oblong shape. The dimensions of this product are designed so that it can accommodate various types of ammunition. Thus, photographs show that 152 mm and 122 mm shells can be transported in boxes of the same size with different supports.
The main box and its lid are made of a special composite material, the type and composition of which has not yet been specified. Various assumptions have been made in discussions about closures, but they have not yet been supported by any acceptable evidence. Perhaps the new box is proposed to be made of fiberglass with special additives that increase strength and provide flame resistance. Thus, resistance to heat, including contact with open fire, is ensured, first of all, by the outer “shell” of the closure.
The outer box is made of two parts of a similar shape, but of different sizes: the lid has a smaller height compared to the main box. To increase the strength and rigidity of the structure, numerous protrusions are provided around the box and lid. There are recesses on the sides of the main box that can be used as carrying handles. The box and the lid are joined together using a protrusion and a recess running along the perimeter of the joint. In this case, the lid is equipped with a rubber seal that seals the container. They are connected to each other using a set of hinged locks. Three such devices are provided on the long sides of the closure, and two on the short sides.
The inside of the box and lid are covered with a layer of fibrous material, which can serve as additional thermal insulation. Thus, the body of the box protects the contents from open fire, and the internal thermal insulation prevents it from overheating. In addition, the thermal insulation probably plays the role of a seal, ensuring a tighter fit of the cradle liner.
Another capping option designed for a smaller caliber projectile
To rigidly fix the payload inside the new closure, it is proposed to use two plastic supports placed in the box and its lid. These products provide recesses of appropriate shapes and sizes into which the projectile and cartridge case or other products supplied to the troops should be placed. The closures shown in the photographs have a curious feature: on the “working” surface of their inserts, next to the main recesses, additional recesses and protrusions are provided. With their help, the correct joining of the cradle is ensured and the prevention of their shift relative to each other.
Currently, there are versions of similar products for several types of artillery shells, and in the future new modifications may appear with updated inserts adapted to accommodate other payloads, up to small arms cartridges, hand grenades, etc.
The proposed closure design allows us to successfully solve the main problems of transportation, storage and use of various types of ammunition. The durable plastic outer shell of the box provides protection from mechanical damage and, unlike wood, does not burn and can withstand high temperatures for a long time. Sealing the joints prevents moisture from entering the box and thereby protects its contents from corrosion. Finally, there is an advantage in service life. The possibility of using the new closure for 50 years is declared.
New plastic closures for ammunition are expected to replace existing wooden products. For this reason, many discussions of the innovation attempt to compare old wooden and new plastic boxes. At the same time, it turns out that in some cases new closures may indeed be better than old ones, but from the point of view of other features they are inferior to them.
Perhaps the greatest interest is in the abandonment of wood in order to solve fire safety problems. Indeed, fires regularly occur in ammunition depots, resulting in the destruction of a large number of shells, as well as the destruction of buildings. In addition, many times during such events people suffered, both military personnel and residents of nearby settlements. For this reason, the fire resistance of the new boxes could be considered a very useful innovation, which, with certain reservations, could even justify the existing disadvantages.
However, the absence of any wooden elements in some situations can turn into a disadvantage. Empty wooden ammunition caps have traditionally been not only a multi-functional container, but also a source of wood. Wooden boxes can be used by troops for a variety of purposes. With their help, you can build some objects, such as dugouts, trenches, etc., and a disassembled box becomes firewood for a fire. Plastic containers can be used for construction, but it will be impossible to keep warm or cook food with it.
Trials by Fire
An important feature of the new closure is its lighter weight. By using relatively thin plastic housings and inserts made of similar materials, significant weight savings can be achieved in comparison with wooden packaging.
When evaluating a new ammunition container, you should consider not only compliance and some additional “consumer characteristics”, but also cost. Unfortunately, at the moment there is no information about the price of the new boxes. There is some information about orders for various containers for the armed forces, but this cannot be directly linked to the new boxes. However, it is obvious that promising plastic containers should be noticeably more expensive than traditional wooden ones. How much is still unknown.
Troops have tested two options for new closures this year, according to the Undersecretary of Defense. These products are designed to transport shells of 30 and 152 mm caliber. The tests were completed successfully, which resulted in the decision to use new packaging in the future. Already next year, the armed forces should receive the first batch of artillery shells, packed in new boxes. In addition, there is information about the existence of closures for 122-mm shells, and the design of this product makes it possible to build boxes for other products. Thus, new types of closures may appear in the foreseeable future.
According to the military department, the promising closures fully comply with the requirements and will be supplied starting next year. It is not yet entirely clear what the pace of supply of new packaging will be and whether it will be able to completely replace existing wooden boxes. Nevertheless, there is every reason to believe that promising closures will not only be able to reach the military, but also win a prominent place in warehouses from traditional containers.
Based on materials from sites:
http://vz.ru/
http://vpk-news.ru/
http://redstar.ru/
http://twower.livejournal.com/
23 mm cartridges with OFZT and BZT projectiles are sealed in hermetically sealed welded-sealing boxes of 21 pieces each (Fig. 11 - 9).
The cartridges in the box are laid out in horizontal rows and arranged with a snake 1 (paper or cardboard).
Row from row is separated by cardboard spacer 2.
Cartridges with BZT shells are stacked at the rate of: two cartridges with a decoupler for 19 rounds without a decoupler.
Three boxes of cartridges (63 pcs.) are placed in a wooden box (Fig. 12 - 10), the weight of which is 44 kg.
One box is tied with tape 1 for easy removal from the box. Knife 2 for opening boxes, wrapped in paper, is placed in the cutout of a wooden spacer located between two boxes. The knife is placed in boxes at the rate of one knife per two boxes.
The boxes in which the knife is placed have a distinctive marking on the lid - the silhouette of a knife.
The lid of the metal box bears the following markings (Fig. 11 - 8): caliber, cartridge type, year of manufacture and batch number.
The sealing box with cartridges bears the following markings: on the left side of the front side wall (for high-explosive fragmentation - incendiary - tracer shells) the inscription OK SN, indicating that the cartridges are in final loaded form and do not require additional elements; fuse marking (MG - 25).
For cartridges with armor-piercing - incendiary - tracer projectiles, data on the final equipment is not marked on the front part of the front side wall of the box.
On the middle part of the front wall of the box are marked: the caliber and type of projectile (OFZT or BZT), the weight of the box with cartridges, the number of cartridges in the box (63 pcs.).
On the right side of the front side wall are marked: brand, batch number, year of manufacture, plant - manufacturer of gunpowder (5/7 CFL 15/00), plant number, batch number and year of manufacture of cartridges.
On the right end wall for cartridges with high-explosive fragmentation - incendiary - tracer shells the following are applied: explosive code (A - 1X - 2), plant, batch number and year of manufacture of the bombs (00 - 48 - 00), for cartridges with armor-piercing - incendiary – tracer shells apply: incendiary code (DU - 5), factory. batch number and year of manufacture of the checkers (00 – 62 – 00).
54. Purpose, composition and brief characteristics of the antenna control system
The antenna control system is designed to control the movement of the antenna in azimuth and elevation when searching and tracking a target.
To ensure the movement of the antenna, AC motors are used, the rotation speed of which is constant. Rotation is transmitted from the motors to the antenna through magnetic particle couplings in each channel. Controlling the position of the antenna comes down to controlling the operation of magnetic particle couplings by changing the control voltages on their windings. If the voltages on the couplings are equal, rotation is not transmitted from the motors to the antenna. If the control voltages are different, then rotation will be transmitted by the clutch whose voltage is greater. Consequently, controlling the position of the antenna is reduced to generating control voltages that vary in magnitude.
AMS consists of the following blocks:
· T-13M2 angular coordinate tracking unit
designed to highlight an error signal in auto-target tracking mode
· antenna control unit T-55M2, designed to generate an error signal (SO) in azimuth and elevation
· antenna column T-2M3, designed for rotating the antenna in azimuth and elevation, determining, converting and transmitting angular coordinates to a calculating device and a sighting coordinate converter
The blocks include the following main components:
1) block T-13M2:
2) fast automatic gain control
3) error signal isolation subblock T-13M1-1
4) subunit for amplification and conversion of the error signal in azimuth T-13M1-P (U3);
5) subunit for amplification and conversion of the error signal by elevation angle T-13M1-P (U4).
6) Block T-55M2:
7) buttons (on control handles) and toggle switches;
8) U-1 gearbox for differential synchronizers of azimuth and elevation;
9) azimuth and elevation servo amplifiers;
10) selsyn transformers M1 and M2;
11) electrical bridges of azimuth and elevation;
12) sector search sensor.
13) Block T-2M3: drive mechanisms;
14) lifting gearbox;
15) T-81M3 block – antenna;
16) sighting device T-2M3;
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