Mongol Tatar invasion dates. Mongol-Tatar yoke. Briefly

Chronology

• 1123 Battle of the Russians and Cumans with the Mongols on the Kalka River
• 1237 - 1240 Conquest of Rus' by the Mongols
• 1240 The defeat of the Swedish knights on the Neva River by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (Battle of the Neva)
• 1242 The defeat of the crusaders on Lake Peipsi by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky (Battle of the Ice)
• 1380 Battle of Kulikovo

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the 13th century the peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors, who ruled the Russian lands until the 15th century. (last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the rise of absolutism.

In the 12th century. There was no centralized state in Mongolia; the unification of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At the general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 he was proclaimed great khan with the name Genghis(“limitless power”).

Once the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongol army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. An imperial guard was created that controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongol cavalry prevailed in the steppe wars. She was better organized and trained than any army of nomads of the past. The reason for the success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of their rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China, the Mongols brought the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received a cadre of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia there was Northern Iran captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The Polovtsians' request to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Ögedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongol capital Kara-korum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to Russian lands. At the head of the new campaign was Ogedei’s nephew, Batu (Batu).

In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to muddy roads.

In 1240, the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the Mongol invasion.

The result of Batu’s grandiose campaign was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After Ogedei's death in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ogedei's son Hayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He founded his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, Volga, North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The struggle of the Russian people against Western aggression

When the Mongols occupied Russian cities, the Swedes, threatening Novgorod, appeared at the mouth of the Neva. They were defeated in July 1240 by the young prince Alexander, who received the name Nevsky for his victory.

At the same time, the Roman Church made acquisitions in the Baltic Sea countries. Back in the 12th century, German knighthood began to seize lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an attack was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The Crusaders' invasion of the Baltic lands and North-Western Rus' was sanctioned by the Pope and German Emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other northern European countries also took part in the crusade. The attack on Russian lands was part of the doctrine of “Drang nach Osten” (pressure to the east).

Baltic states in the 13th century.

Together with his squad, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received news that the main forces of the Order were coming towards him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the path of the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself to be an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: “We win everywhere, but we won’t win at all.” Alexander placed his troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the formation of the knights in a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was made up of heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with the tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, some of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself in the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly “pig”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Russians pursued the enemy, “flogged, rushing after him as if through the air,” the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, in the battle “400 Germans and 50 were captured”

Persistently resisting Western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with regard to the eastern onslaught. Recognition of the Khan's sovereignty freed up his hands to repel the Teutonic Crusade.

Tatar-Mongol yoke

Persistently resisting Western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with regard to the eastern onslaught. The Mongols did not interfere in the religious affairs of their subjects, while the Germans tried to impose their faith on the conquered peoples. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan “Whoever does not want to be baptized must die!” Recognition of the Khan's sovereignty freed up forces to repel the Teutonic Crusade. But it turned out that the “Mongol flood” is not easy to get rid of. RThe Russian lands, devastated by the Mongols, were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

During the first period of Mongol rule, the collection of taxes and the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol troops was carried out on the orders of the Great Khan. Both money and recruits were sent to the capital. Under Gauk, Russian princes went to Mongolia to receive a label to reign. Later, a trip to Sarai was enough.

The continuous struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskaq governors was created - leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. Denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the prince being summoned to Sarai (often he was deprived of his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census - “recording the number.” Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, who were in charge of collecting tribute. The size of the tribute (“output”) was very large, only the “tsar’s tribute”, i.e. the tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind and then in money, amounted to 1,300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by “requests” - one-time exactions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” the khan’s officials, etc. went to the khan’s treasury. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars.

The Horde yoke slowed down the economic development of Rus' for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, and undermined its culture. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus', urban construction stopped, and fine and applied arts fell into decay. A serious consequence of the yoke was the deepening disunity of Rus' and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern regions, which were later captured by Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. The trade relations between Rus' and the West were dealt a blow: only Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk retained trade relations with foreign countries.

The turning point came in 1380, when Mamai’s army of thousands was defeated on the Kulikovo Field.

Battle of Kulikovo 1380

Rus' began to strengthen, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. The final liberation occurred in 1480 under Emperor Ivan III. By this time the period had ended, the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow and.

Genghis Khan(in childhood and adolescence - Temujin, Temujin) is the founder and also the first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. During his reign, he, like Prince Oleg and other Russian princes, united many disparate tribes (in this case, Mongolian and partially Tatar) into one powerful state.

Genghis Khan's whole life after gaining power consisted of many campaigns of conquest in Asia and later in Europe. Thanks to this, in 2000, the American edition of the New York Times named him the man of the millennium (meaning the period from 1000 to 2000 - during this time he created the largest empire in human history).

By 1200, Temujin united all the Mongol tribes, and by 1202 - the Tatar ones. By 1223-1227, Genghis Khan simply wiped out many ancient states from the face of the earth, such as:

• Volga Bulgaria;
• Baghdad Caliphate;
• Chinese Empire ;
• the state of the Khorezmshahs (the territories of present-day Iran (Persia), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Iraq and many other small states of Central and South-West Asia).

Genghis Khan died in 1227 from inflammation after a hunting injury (or from a virus or bacteria not native to East Asia - let's not forget about the level of medicine at that time) at the age of about 65 years.

The beginning of the Mongol invasion.

By the early 1200s, Genghis Khan was already planning the conquest of Eastern Europe. Later, after his death, the Mongols reached Germany and Italy, conquering Poland, Hungary, Ancient Rus' and so on, including attacking the Baltic states and other lands of northern and northeastern Europe. Long before this, on behalf of Genghis Khan, his sons Jochi, Jebe and Subedei set off to conquer the territories adjacent to Rus', simultaneously testing the soil of the Old Russian state .

The Mongols, using force or threats, conquered the Alans (present-day Ossetia), the Volga Bulgars and most of the lands of the Cumans, as well as the territories of the South and North Caucasus, and Kuban.

After the Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help, a council gathered in Kyiv under the leadership of Mstislav Svyatoslavovich, Mstislav Mstislavovich and Mstislav Romanovich. All the Mstislavs then came to the conclusion that, having finished off the Polovtsian princes, Tatar-Mongols will take over Rus', and in the worst case scenario, the Polovtsians will go over to the side Mongols, and together they will attack the Russian principalities. Guided by the principle “it is better to beat the enemy on foreign soil than on your own,” the Mstislavs gathered an army and moved south along the Dnieper.

Thanks to intelligence Mongol-Tatars learned about this and began to prepare for the meeting, having previously sent ambassadors to the Russian army.

The ambassadors brought the news that the Mongols did not touch the Russian lands and were not going to touch them, saying they only had scores to settle with the Polovtsians, and expressed a desire for Rus' not to interfere in matters that were not their own. Genghis Khan was often guided by the principle of “divide and conquer,” but the princes did not fall for this move. Historians also admit that stopping the campaign could, at best, delay the Mongol attack on Rus'. One way or another, the ambassadors were executed, and the campaign continued. A little later, the Tatar-Mongols sent a second embassy with a repeated request - this time they were released, but the campaign continued.

Battle of the Kalka River.

In the Azov region, somewhere in the territory of the present Donetsk region, a clash occurred, known in history as Battle of Kalka. Before this, the Russian princes defeated the vanguard of the Mongol-Tatars and, emboldened by their success, entered into battle near the river now known as Kalchik (which flows into the Kalmius). The exact number of troops on both sides is unknown. Russian historians call the number of Russians from 8 to 40 thousand, and the number of Mongols from 30 to 50 thousand. Asian chronicles talk about almost a hundred thousand Russians, which is not surprising (remember how Mao Zedong boasted that Stalin served him at a tea ceremony, although the Soviet leader only showed hospitality and handed him a mug of tea). Adequate historians, based on the fact that Russian princes usually gathered from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers on a campaign (maximum 15 thousand), came to the conclusion that there were about 10-12 thousand Russian troops, and about 15-25 thousand Tatar-Mongols ( Considering that Genghis Khan sent 30 thousand to the west, but some of them were defeated as part of the vanguard, as well as in previous battles with the Alans, Cumans, etc., plus a discount for the fact that not everyone available to the Mongols could have participated in the battle reserves).

So, the battle began on May 31, 1223. The beginning of the battle was successful for the Russians; Prince Daniil Romanovich defeated the advanced positions of the Mongols and rushed to pursue them, despite his injury. But then he encountered the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars. By that time, part of the Russian army had already managed to cross the river. The Mongol forces closed in and defeated the Russians and Cumans, while the rest of the Cuman forces fled. The rest of the Mongol-Tatar forces surrounded the troops of the Prince of Kyiv. The Mongols offered to surrender with the promise that then “no blood would be shed. Mstislav Svyatoslavovich fought the longest, who surrendered only on the third day of the battle. The Mongol leaders kept their promise extremely conditionally: they took all the ordinary soldiers into slavery, and executed the princes (as they promised - without shedding blood, they covered them with planks along which the entire Mongol-Tatar army marched in formation).

After this, the Mongols did not dare to go to Kyiv, and went to conquer the remnants of the Volga Bulgars, but the battle progressed unsuccessfully, and they retreated and returned to Genghis Khan. The Battle of the Kalka River was the beginning

The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' lasted five years - from 1237 to 1242 and ended with the transition of the Slavic lands under the actual power of the Golden Horde. There are two stages of conquest.

Prerequisites and beginning of the invasion

The main prerequisite that determined the success of the actions of the conquering army was the fragmentation of the principality. Instead of uniting in the fight against a common enemy, the princes continued to fight. Each principality individually was not strong enough to withstand the raids.

For the first time, the army of the Kyiv prince Mstislav encountered the Mongol army, which was virtually destroyed in the battle on the Kalka River (1223). Then Genghis Khan attacked the lands of the Polovtsians - it was to them that Russian warriors came to their aid under the terms of the agreement concluded with the Polovtsian princes.

Rice. 1. Battle of Kalka.

After this, the Mongols did not return to the borders of Rus' for more than 10 years, until Batu Khan invaded the Slavic lands in 1237. The invasion took place in two stages: in 1237-1238 a campaign was made on the eastern and northern lands, and in 1239-1242 on the southern ones.

The first invasion of Rus'

The Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 13th century began in the second half of 1237, when Batu’s army approached the borders of the Ryazan principality. The movement of the army was rapid: it took 6 days to capture Ryazan, the siege of Moscow lasted 4 days and ended with a devastating battle near Kolomna, where the army of Moscow Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was defeated. Vladimir fell 8 days after the start of the siege, this happened in the fall of 1238.

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It was the capture of Vladimir that became the turning point in Batu’s campaign against the eastern and northern lands of Rus' - one city after another quickly submitted to him. However, he did not reach Novgorod, turning his troops towards Kozelsk. And this city became an unexpected obstacle on his way, for which it was called “evil” - the garrison defended itself for seven weeks.

Rice. 2. Defense of Kozelsk.

To take the city, a trick was needed: the khan announced that if the residents voluntarily open the gates, he would let in all the soldiers and civilians. However, he did not keep his word and the population of Kozelsk was completely destroyed.

This completed the first stage of Batu’s invasion of Rus'.

Second invasion of Rus'

The invasion, which began in 1239, was centered on Chernigov and Pereyaslavl. However, this time the offensive was sluggish due to the fact that at the same time the Mongols were fighting against the Cumans. And yet, by the autumn of 1240, their army was already standing under the walls of Kyiv. At the beginning of December of the same year, it was already taken, and the conquerors almost completely destroyed the city. After this, the army split: one part went to conquer Galich, the second - Vladimir-Volynsky. Both of these cities were taken, and Batu’s invasion of Rus' ended. The Horde yoke was established.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

They were the most deplorable. Rus' actually found itself under the rule of the Golden Horde, which meant economic and political dependence: the principalities paid tribute (not only in money, but also in people), and the rulers received labels to reign under the khan. Due to the decrease in population (particularly artisans) and economic factors, the progress of the state slowed down greatly.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the period of the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th-15th centuries. The Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for 243 years.

The truth about the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The Russian princes at that time were in a state of hostility, so they could not give a worthy rebuff to the invaders. Despite the fact that the Cumans came to the rescue, the Tatar-Mongol army quickly seized the advantage.

The first direct clash between the troops took place on the Kalka River, on May 31, 1223, and was lost quite quickly. Even then it became clear that our army would not be able to defeat the Tatar-Mongols, but the enemy’s onslaught was held back for quite some time.

In the winter of 1237, a targeted invasion of the main Tatar-Mongol troops into the territory of Rus' began. This time the enemy army was commanded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. The army of nomads managed to move quite quickly into the interior of the country, plundering the principalities in turn and killing everyone who tried to resist as they went along.

Main dates of the capture of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols

• 1223 The Tatar-Mongols approached the border of Rus';
• May 31, 1223. First battle;
• Winter 1237. The beginning of a targeted invasion of Rus';
• 1237 Ryazan and Kolomna were captured. The Ryazan principality fell;
• March 4, 1238. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed. The city of Vladimir is captured;
• Autumn 1239. Chernigov captured. The Principality of Chernigov fell;
• 1240 Kyiv is captured. The Principality of Kiev fell;
• 1241 The Galician-Volyn principality fell;
• 1480 Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Reasons for the fall of Rus' under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars

• lack of a unified organization in the ranks of Russian soldiers;
• numerical superiority of the enemy;
• weakness of the command of the Russian army;
• poorly organized mutual assistance on the part of disparate princes;
• underestimation of enemy forces and numbers.

Features of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'

The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke with new laws and orders began in Rus'.

Vladimir became the de facto center of political life; it was from there that the Tatar-Mongol khan exercised his control.

The essence of the management of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was that Khan awarded the label for reign at his own discretion and completely controlled all territories of the country. This increased the enmity between the princes.

Feudal fragmentation of territories was encouraged in every possible way, as this reduced the likelihood of a centralized rebellion.

Tribute was regularly collected from the population, the “Horde exit.” The collection of money was carried out by special officials - Baskaks, who showed extreme cruelty and did not shy away from kidnappings and murders.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' were terrible.

• Many cities and villages were destroyed, people were killed;
• Agriculture, handicrafts and art fell into decline;
• Feudal fragmentation increased significantly;
• The population has decreased significantly;
• Rus' began to noticeably lag behind Europe in development.

The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke occurred only in 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan III refused to pay money to the horde and declared the independence of Rus'.

INVASION OF THE MONGOL-TATARS ON Rus', 1237-1240.

In 1237, the 75,000-strong army of Khan Batu invaded Russian borders. Hordes of Mongol-Tatars, a well-armed army of the Khan's empire, the largest in medieval history, came to conquer Rus': to wipe out rebellious Russian cities and villages from the face of the earth, impose tribute on the population and establish the power of their governors - the Baskaks - throughout the entire Russian land.

The Mongol-Tatars’ attack on Rus' was sudden, but not only this determined the success of the invasion. For a number of objective reasons, power was on the side of the conquerors, the fate of Rus' was predetermined, as was the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was a country torn into small principalities, without a single ruler or army. Behind the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, stood a strong and united power, approaching the peak of its power. Only a century and a half later, in 1380, in different political and economic conditions, Rus' was able to field a strong army against the Golden Horde led by a single commander - the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and move from a shameful and unsuccessful defense to active military action and achieve a devastating victory on the Kulikovo field.

Not about any unity of the Russian land in 1237-1240. there was no question, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars showed the weakness of Rus', the invasion of the enemy and the power of the Golden Horde established for two and a half centuries, the Golden Horde yoke became retribution for internecine enmity and trampling of all-Russian interests on the part of Russian princes, too keen on satisfying their political ambitions.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' was swift and merciless. In December 1237, Batu’s army burned Ryazan, and on January 1, 1238, Kolomna fell under enemy pressure. During January - May 1238, the Mongol-Tatar invasion incinerated the Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglitsky and Kozel principalities. In 1239 it was destroyed by Murom, a year later the inhabitants of the cities and villages of the Chernigov principality faced the misfortune of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and in September - December 1240 the ancient capital city of Rus' - Kyiv was conquered.

After the defeat of North-Eastern and Southern Rus', the countries of Eastern Europe were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion: Batu’s army won a number of major victories in Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, but, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, returned to the Volga region, which became the epicenter of the powerful Golden Horde.

With the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Rus', the Golden Horde period of Russian history began: the era of the rule of Eastern despotism, oppression and ruin of the Russian people, the period of decline of the Russian economy and culture.

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the 13th century the peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors, who ruled the Russian lands until the 15th century. (last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the rise of absolutism.

In the 12th century. There was no centralized state in Mongolia; the unification of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At the general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 he was proclaimed great khan with the name Genghis(“limitless power”).

Once the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongol army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. An imperial guard was created that controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongol cavalry prevailed in the steppe wars. She was better organized and trained than any army of nomads of the past. The reason for the success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of their rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China, the Mongols brought the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received a cadre of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia there was Northern Iran captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The Polovtsians' request to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Ögedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongol capital Kara-korum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to Russian lands. At the head of the new campaign was Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu).

In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to muddy roads.

In 1240, the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the Mongol invasion.

The result of Batu's grandiose campaign was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After Ogedei's death in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ogedei's son Hayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He founded his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, Volga, North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army occurred 14 years before Batu’s invasion. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Baghatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsians in close proximity to Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsians, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsians.

On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between Russian-Polovtsian troops and Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of ​​Azov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes died, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militiamen.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polish army were:

The reluctance of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);

Underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and was not properly prepared for battle);

Inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but scattered squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads withdrew from the battle and watched from the sidelines).

Having won a victory on Kalka, the army of Subudai-Baghatur did not build on its success and went to the steppes.

4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having won a victory over the Cumans and Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Rus'.

The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:

The campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities - northeast Rus' - were conquered;

The campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities and other principalities of southern Rus' were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:

Defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all residents participated and died during the defense of the city;

Defense of Vladimir (1238);

Defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they nicknamed it the “evil city”;

Battle of the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;

The defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.

December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are considered to be:

Feudal fragmentation;

Lack of a single centralized state and a unified army;

Enmity between princes;

The transition of individual princes to the side of the Mongols;

The technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatars invasion for the Old Russian state.

The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the lives of city residents became poorer, and many crafts were lost.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production, since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass removals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the craft population, Russian cities lost centuries of production experience: the craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. The quality of construction subsequently also dropped significantly. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside and rural monasteries of Rus'. The peasants were robbed by everyone: Horde officials, numerous Khan's ambassadors, and simply regional gangs. The damage caused by the Mongol-Tatars to the peasant economy was terrible. Dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed in the war. Draft cattle were captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked out the entire harvest from barns. Russian peasant prisoners were an important export item from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, constant threat, shameful slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian village. The damage caused to the national economy of Rus' by the Mongolo-Tatar conquerors was not limited to devastating looting during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values ​​left the country in the form of “ani” and “requests”. The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. There was not enough silver for trade; there was even a “silver famine.” The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. For example, Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Rus' for predatory raids. The German feudal lords also intensified the attack on the Russian lands. Russia lost the way to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the ancient ties of the Russian principalities with Byzantium were broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. Numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed in the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions. And also there was a decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its dawn at the beginning of Batu’s invasion.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations and “mothballed” the natural economy. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, gradually moved from feudalism to capitalism, Rus', torn apart by the conquerors, retained the feudal economy. It is difficult to even imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how many more misfortunes, murders and destruction they could have caused if the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, had not stopped the invasion on the borders of Central Europe.

The positive thing was that the entire Russian clergy and church people were spared from paying the heavy Tatar tribute. It should be noted that the Tatars were completely tolerant of all religions, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, Russian metropolitans received from the khans special letters (“yarlyki”), which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and immunity church properties. The Church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian “peasantry.”

Finally, Tatar rule separated Eastern Rus' from Western Europe for a long time, and after the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eastern branch of the Russian people found itself separated for several centuries from its western branch, which created a wall of mutual alienation between them. Eastern Rus', which was under the rule of the Tatars, itself turned into “Tataria” in the minds of ignorant Europeans...

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

Firstly, this is the backwardness of Rus' from European countries. Europe continued to develop, while Rus' had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Farmers also moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this delayed economic development.

Third, the slowness of cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built at all in Rus'.

Fourth – cessation of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Rus' was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and carried out punitive campaigns when the principalities disobeyed.

The fifth consequence is very controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved political fragmentation in Rus', others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.