Alexey Tsvetkov.
Classicism.
Classicism is an artistic style of speech and aesthetic direction in fiction of the 17th-18th centuries, formed in France in the 17th century. The founder of classicism is Boileau, in particular his work “Poetic Art” (1674). Boileau was based on the principles of harmony and proportionality of parts, logical harmony and laconicism of composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. In France, “Low” genres – fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (N. Boileau) – have achieved special development. The flourishing of classicism in world literature was due to the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Moliere, the fables of La Fontaine, and the prose of La Rochefoucauld. In the era of enlightenment, the works of Voltaire, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller were associated with classicism.
The most important features of classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is usually based on a love triangle: heroine – hero-lover, second lover.
4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.
The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres:
1. “High” genres – tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture.
2. “Low” genres – comedy, satire, fable, genre painting. (The exception is the best comedies of Moliere, they were assigned to the “high” genres)
In Russia, classicism originated in the first half of the 18th century. The first writer to use classicism was Antioch Cantemir. In Russian literature, classicism is represented by the tragedies of Sumarokov and Knyazhnin, the comedies of Fonvizin, and the poetry of Kantemir, Lomonosov, and Derzhavin. Pushkin, Griboedov, and Belinsky criticized the “rules” of classicism.
The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:
1. Literature of Peter's time; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature is the intensive process of “secularization” (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.
2. 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and in-depth development of the Russian language.
3. 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
4. The last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies
a. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration.
b. Concept, idea of presentation, images.
Representatives of classicism attached great importance to the educational function of art, striving in their works to create images of heroes worthy of imitation: resistant to the harshness of fate and the vicissitudes of existence, guided in their actions by duty and reason. Literature created the image of a new person who was confident that he needed to live for the benefit of society, to be a citizen and a patriot. The hero penetrates into the secrets of the universe, becomes an active creative person, such literary works turn into a textbook of life. Literature posed and resolved pressing issues of its time, and helped readers figure out how to live. By creating new heroes, diverse in character, representing different classes, the writers of classicism made it possible for subsequent generations to learn how people of the 18th century lived, what worried them, what they felt.
What is Classicism?
Classicism is an artistic movement that developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and the works of antiquity as the artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are contrasted. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its main features were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise Poetic Art (1674). Classicism was considered as a movement oriented towards ancient art. The definition of classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, comparison to ancient models and strict adherence to rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of three unities were mandatory (unity of time, unity of place, unity of action), which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in drama. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this movement understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of true art, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to beautiful nature as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmony of composition, a set of specific themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although prose genres such as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of good taste, developed by the so-called good society. The taste of classicism prefers brevity to verbosity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity, extravagant - decency. The basic law of classicism is artistic verisimilitude, which depicts things and people as they should be according to moral standards, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which should turn them into universal human types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
Classicism is an artistic and architectural movement in world culture of the 17th-19th centuries, where the aesthetic ideals of antiquity became a role model and creative guideline. Originating in Europe, the movement also actively influenced the development of Russian urban planning. The classical architecture created at that time is rightfully considered a national treasure.
Historical background
- As a style of architecture, classics originated in the 17th century in France and at the same time in England, naturally continuing the cultural values of the Renaissance.
These countries witnessed the rise and flourishing of the monarchical system; the values of Ancient Greece and Rome were perceived as an example of an ideal government structure and harmonious interaction between man and nature. The idea of a rational structure of the world has penetrated into all spheres of society.
- The second stage in the development of the classical direction dates back to the 18th century, when the philosophy of rationalism became the motive for turning to historical traditions.
During the Enlightenment, the idea of the logic of the universe and adherence to strict canons was glorified. Classical traditions in architecture: simplicity, clarity, rigor - came to the fore instead of excessive pomposity and excess decorativeness of Baroque and Rococo.
- The Italian architect Andrea Palladio is considered the theorist of style (another name for classicism is “Palladianism”).
At the end of the 16th century, he described in detail the principles of the ancient order system and modular building design, and put them into practice in the construction of city palazzos and country villas. A typical example of mathematical precision of proportions is the Villa Rotunda, decorated with Ionic porticoes.
Classicism: style features
In the appearance of buildings, the signs of the classical style are easy to recognize:
- clear spatial solutions,
- strict forms,
- laconic exterior decoration,
- soft colors.
If the Baroque masters preferred to work with volumetric illusions, which often distorted proportions, then clear perspectives dominated here. Even park ensembles of this era were carried out in a regular style, when the lawns had the correct shape, and shrubs and ponds were located in straight lines.
- One of the main features of classicism in architecture is the appeal to the ancient order system.
Translated from Latin, ordo means “order, order,” the term was applied to the proportions of ancient temples between the load-bearing and supported parts: columns and entablature (upper ceiling).
Three orders came to the classics from Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. They differed in the ratio and size of the base, capital, and frieze. The Romans inherited the Tuscan and Composite orders.
Elements of classical architecture
- The order turned into the leading feature of classicism in architecture. But if during the Renaissance the ancient order and portico played the role of simple stylistic decoration, now they have again become a constructive basis, as in ancient Greek construction.
- Symmetrical composition is an obligatory element of classics in architecture, closely related to order. The implemented projects of private houses and public buildings were symmetrical about the central axis, the same symmetry could be traced in each individual fragment.
- The rule of the golden ratio (the exemplary ratio of height and width) determined the harmonious proportions of buildings.
- Leading decorative techniques: decorations in the form of bas-reliefs with medallions, stucco floral ornaments, arched openings, window cornices, Greek statues on the roofs. To emphasize the snow-white decorative elements, the color scheme for decoration was chosen in light pastel shades.
- Among the features of classical architecture is the design of the walls according to the principle of order division into three horizontal parts: the bottom - the plinth, in the middle - the main field, at the top - the entablature. Cornices above each floor, window friezes, platbands of various shapes, as well as vertical pilasters, created a picturesque relief of the facade.
- The design of the main entrance included marble staircases, colonnades, and pediments with bas-reliefs.
Types of classical architecture: national characteristics
The ancient canons, revived in the era of classicism, were perceived as the highest ideal of the beauty and rationality of all things. Therefore, the new aesthetics of severity and symmetry, pushing aside baroque pomposity, widely penetrated not only the sphere of private housing construction, but also the scale of entire urban planning. European architects became pioneers in this regard.
English classicism
Palladio's work greatly influenced the principles of classical architecture in Great Britain, in particular in the works of the outstanding English master Inigo Jones. In the first third of the 17th century, he created Queens House ("Queen's House"), where he applied order divisions and balanced proportions. The construction of the first square in the capital, carried out according to a regular plan, Covent Garden, is also associated with his name.
Another English architect, Christopher Wren, went down in history as the creator of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he used a symmetrical order composition with a two-tier portico, two side towers and a dome.
During the construction of urban and suburban private apartments, English classicism in architecture brought into fashion Palladian mansions - compact three-story buildings with simple and clear forms.
The first floor was finished with rusticated stone, the second floor was considered the front floor - it was combined with the upper (residential) floor using a large façade order.
Features of classicism in French architecture
The heyday of the first period of French classics occurred in the second half of the 17th century during the reign of Louis XIV. The ideas of absolutism as a rational state organization manifested themselves in architecture through rational order compositions and the transformation of the surrounding landscape according to the principles of geometry.
The most significant events of this time were the construction of the eastern facade of the Louvre with a huge two-story gallery and the creation of an architectural and park ensemble in Versailles.
In the 18th century, the development of French architecture passed under the sign of Rococo, but already in the middle of the century its elaborate forms gave way to strict and simple classics in architecture, both urban and private. The medieval development is replaced by a plan that takes into account the tasks of infrastructure and the placement of industrial buildings. Residential buildings are built according to the multi-story principle.
The order is perceived not as a decoration of the building, but as a structural unit: if the column does not bear the load, it is unnecessary. The Church of Saint Genevieve (Pantheon), designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot, is considered an example of the architectural features of classicism in France of this period. Its composition is logical, the parts and the whole are balanced, the line drawing is clear. The master strove to accurately reproduce the details of ancient art.
Russian classicism in architecture
The development of the classical architectural style in Russia occurred during the reign of Catherine II. In the early years, elements of antiquity were still mixed with baroque decor, but they were relegated to the background. In the projects of Zh.B. Wallen-Delamotte, A.F. Kokorinov and Yu. M. Felten, baroque chic gives way to the dominant role of the logic of the Greek order.
A feature of the classics in Russian architecture of the late (strict) period was the final departure from the Baroque heritage. This direction was formed by 1780 and is represented by the works of C. Cameron, V. I. Bazhenov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi.
The rapidly developing economy of the country contributed to the rapid change of styles. Domestic and foreign trade expanded, academies and institutes, and industrial workshops were opened. There was a need for the rapid construction of new buildings: guest houses, fairgrounds, exchanges, banks, hospitals, boarding houses, libraries.
Under these conditions, the deliberately lush and complex forms of Baroque revealed their disadvantages: the long duration of construction work, high cost and the need to attract an impressive staff of qualified craftsmen.
Classicism in Russian architecture, with its logical and simple compositional and decorative solutions, became a successful response to the economic demands of the era.
Examples of Russian architectural classics
Tauride Palace - project by I.E. Starov, implemented in the 1780s, is a vivid example of the classicism movement in architecture. The modest facade is made with clear monumental forms; the Tuscan portico of strict design attracts attention.
V.I. made a great contribution to the architecture of both capitals. Bazhenov, who created the Pashkov House in Moscow (1784-1786) and the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) in St. Petersburg.
The Alexander Palace of D. Quarenghi (1792-1796) attracted the attention of contemporaries with its combination of walls, practically devoid of decor, and a majestic colonnade, made in two rows.
Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) F.I. Volkova is an example of exemplary construction of barracks-type buildings according to the principles of classicism.
Architectural features of the classics of the late period
The stage of transition from the classicism style in architecture to the Empire style is called Alexandrovsky, named after Emperor Alexander I. The projects created between 1800-1812 have the following characteristic features:
- accentuated antique stylization
- monumentality of images
- predominance of the Doric order (without unnecessary decorations)
Outstanding projects of this time:
- architectural composition of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island by Thomas de Thomon with the Exchange and Rostral columns,
- Mining Institute on the Neva embankment A. Voronikhin,
- building of the Main Admiralty of A. Zakharov.
Classics in modern architecture
The era of classicism is called the golden age of estates. The Russian nobility actively began building new estates and renovating outdated mansions. Moreover, the changes affected not only buildings, but also the landscape, embodying the ideas of theorists of landscape gardening art.
In this regard, modern classical architectural forms, as the embodiment of the heritage of ancestors, are firmly connected with symbolism: it is not only a stylistic appeal to antiquity, with emphasized pomp and solemnity, a set of decorative techniques, but also a sign of the high social status of the owner of the mansion.
Modern designs of classic houses are a subtle combination of traditions with current construction and design solutions.
Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic and architectural style, a movement in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism went through three stages in its development:
* Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid 1780s - 1790s)
* Empire style (from the French empire - “empire”)
Empire is the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades of the 19th century; replaced by eclectic movements.
Although such a phenomenon in European culture as classicism affected all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will look at classicism in architecture and interior.
The history of classicism
Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous Rococo, a style which, since the mid-18th century, had already been widely criticized for being overly complicated, pompous, mannered, and for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with its rich artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, and the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. The new style - classicism was a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.
Famous architectural structures of classicism:
- David Mayernik
Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library - Robert Adam
An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park " target="_blank"> Osterley Park Osterley Park - Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
Customs checkpoint on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> Customs outpost Customs outpost - Andrea Palladio
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda
Main features of classicism
The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.
|
Predominant and fashionable colors |
White, rich colors; green, pink, purple with gold accent, sky blue |
|
Classicism style lines |
Strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion, smooth generalized pattern, symmetry |
|
Form |
Clarity and geometricism of forms, statues on the roof, rotunda, for the Empire style - expressive pompous monumental forms |
|
Characteristic elements of classicism interior |
Restrained decor, round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornaments, coffered vaults, for the Empire style, military decor (emblems), symbols of power |
|
Constructions |
Massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched |
|
Classicism windows |
Rectangular, elongated upward, with a modest design |
|
Classic style doors |
Rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; possibly decorated with lions, sphinxes and statues |
Architects of Classicism
Andrea Palladio (Italian: Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - the great Italian architect of the late Renaissance. The founder of Palladianism and classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.
Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.
Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) was a master of French classicism architecture who anticipated many of the principles of modernism. Blondel's student.
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot, and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.
In Britain, the Empire style corresponds to the so-called “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).
German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.
Types of classicism style buildings
The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.
The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.
The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.
Classicism in the interior
Furniture from the Classical era was solid and respectable, made from valuable wood. The texture of wood becomes of great importance, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Furniture items were often decorated with carved inserts made of valuable wood. Decorative elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.
Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.
The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.
The colors of this style often have crisp, almost primal yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray as well as bronze and silver embellishments. White color is popular. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.
- David Mayernik
Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library - Elizabeth M. Dowling
Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classic Modern classic - Classicism
Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall - Classicism
Modern interior design of a dining room in a classic style " target="_blank"> Dining room Dining room
Classicism- artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.
How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development: fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus,” the greatest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art.” Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made alexandrines the main form of English poetry. English prose of the classical era (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by a Latinized syntax.
Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).
In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature of the era of Sturm and Drang, represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art as the main force of education person.
The main features of Russian classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is usually based on a love triangle: the heroine - the hero-lover, the second lover.
4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.
Romanticism as a literary movement.
Romanticism (French romantisme) is a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, representing a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.
Romanticism first arose in Germany, among writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In its further development, German romanticism was distinguished by an interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs, which was especially clearly expressed in the works of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, and Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected it to critical revision.
In England it is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the “Lake School”, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, becoming familiar with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they contrast modern bourgeois society with old, pre-bourgeois relationships, glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.
A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, according to Pushkin, “clothed himself in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism.” His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against the modern world, glorifying freedom and individualism.
Romanticism became widespread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stael, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi) , Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W. C. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).
It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.
The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron,” can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia.
Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and the inner depth of human individuality. Denial of artistic authorities. There are no genre barriers or stylistic distinctions. Only the desire for complete freedom of creative imagination. For example, we can cite the greatest French poet and writer Victor Hugo and his world-famous novel “Notre Dame de Paris.”
Loading...
