Anthropology (from Anthropo... and... Logia)
the science of the origin and evolution of man, the formation of human races, and the normal variations in the physical structure of man. The justification for the place of anthropology among other sciences was given by F. Engels, who defined it as a science that mediates “... the transition from the morphology and physiology of man and his races to history” (Dialectics of Nature, 1969, p. 158). Abroad, archeology usually includes, in addition to the natural history of man, ethnography and archeology (see Archeology). A., in the understanding accepted in Soviet science, contains the following main sections: human morphology (See Human Morphology), the doctrine of Anthropogenesis, and Racial Studies. From the middle of the 20th century the complex of disciplines united under the name "human biology" is intensively developing. Human morphology is divided into somatology (See Somatology) and merology (See Merology). Somatology studies the patterns of individual variability of the human body as a whole, sexual dimorphism in body structure, age-related changes in size and proportions from the embryonic period to old age, the influence of various biological and social conditions on the body structure, human constitution. This section is most closely related to medicine and is essential for establishing the norms of physical development and growth rates, for gerontology (See Gerontology), etc. Merology is the study of variations in individual parts of an organism. Comparative anatomical studies included in merology are devoted to elucidating the similarities and differences between each organ of the body and each system of human organs in comparison with other vertebrate animals, mainly mammals and, to the greatest extent, with primates (See Primates). As a result of these studies, the family ties of man with other creatures and his place in the animal world are clarified. Paleoanthropology studies the bone remains of fossil humans and close relatives of humans - higher primates. Comparative anatomy and paleoanthropology, as well as embryology, serve to clarify the problem of the origin of man and his evolution, as a result of which they are included in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, which is closely related to philosophy, as well as to the archeology of the Paleolithic,
geology of the Pleistocene, the physiology of the higher nervous activity of man and primates, psychology and zoopsychology, etc. This section of A. considers such questions as the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relationship as a zoological species to other primates, and the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, the allocation of stages in the process of human evolution, the study of the conditions and causes of the formation of a modern type of man. Race studies - a section of A. that studies human races, is sometimes not quite accurately called "ethnic" A.; the latter applies, strictly speaking, only to the study of the racial composition of individual ethnic groups, i.e., tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities. Racial science, in addition to these problems, also studies the classification of races, the history of their formation and such factors of their occurrence as selective processes, isolation, mixing and migration, the influence of climatic conditions and the general geographical environment on racial characteristics. In that part of racial research that is aimed at studying ethnogenesis, A. conducts research in conjunction with linguistics, history, and archeology. In studying the driving forces of race formation, anthropology comes into close contact with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of speciation. The study of races in A. is important for the solution of many problems. It is important for resolving the issue of the ancestral home of modern humans, using anthropological material as a historical source, highlighting the problems of systematics, mainly small systematic units, understanding the patterns of population genetics, and clarifying some issues of honey. geography. Racial science is of great importance in the scientific substantiation of the fight against racism. In the concept of human biology, some scientists include almost the entire content of anthropology, enriched with the methods and facts of related biological disciplines. It would be more correct to use this term to mean only a very important section of A., which studies the physiological, biochemical, and genetic factors that influence variations in the structure and development of the human body. In particular, this should include studies of blood hemoglobins, blood groups, twinning phenomena, the relationship of the human constitution with its physiological and chemical characteristics and with its inclinations to certain diseases; this should also include the study of the heredity of normal traits and population genetics, covering a variety of issues (for example, the stability of the type over time, the role of miscegenation and isolation within racially homogeneous groups). It is equally important to study the influence of nutrition, climate, soil and water composition, and its ability to adapt to different environmental conditions on human morphology. Research methods. A. studies variations in the size and shape of the body through description and measurement. The descriptive technique was called anthropometry, the measuring technique was called anthropometry (See Anthropometry). In the processing of anthropometric material, the role of statistical methods is great. Important methods of anthropological research are Craniology,
osteology,
Odontology, anthropological photography, taking prints of skin patterns of the palms and plantar surfaces of the feet, removing plaster face masks, obtaining plaster prints of the internal cavity of the skull (endocranes). Methods of hematological research, as well as methods of microanatomy, biochemistry, radiology, family study, longitudinal (long-term) and transverse (simultaneous) study of groups, methods of fractionating body weight, the use of radioactive isotopes, various photometric methods, etc., are widespread in modern A. the so-called. geographical method, i.e., mapping the values of otd. racial characteristics and the "imposition" of these cards on top of each other. Combined with ethnographic and historical data, the geographical method forms the basis of racial analysis. Of particular importance in teaching, in museum work, and in criminalistics are the methods of restoring the living image of a person from his skull based on the study of the correlation (connection) of cranial features with the shape of the soft parts of the face. These works in the USSR have been carried out on a large scale since 1927 by M. M. Gerasimov, and later by his collaborators. Brief historical outline. Even the ancient Greeks enriched the science of man with many observations and ideas. Medicine, mainly in the person of Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC), illuminated the influence of climate and nature on diseases and on the physical characteristics of people. With his teaching on the juices in the human body and 4 temperaments, he predicted the paths that later went on to study the physiological differences between the types of constitution and the relationship of these differences with morphological features (habitus). Another source of accumulation of facts, which later became part of Armenia, were observations of various peoples made by Greek travelers, especially Herodotus (fifth century BC). The greatest contribution to anthropology was made by naturalists and philosophers, who even before Christ. e. discussed the role of the hand in the high position that a person occupies in the world (Socrates, Anaxagoras), the survival in nature of those creatures whose structure is harmonious, and the inevitable disappearance of ugly forms (Empedocles). Aristotle built a "ladder of animals", arranging them according to the degree of perfection of organization, and found a place in this system for man above monkeys and other mammals. In the Renaissance, for the development of anthropological knowledge, the general progress in the development of science and the sharply increased interest in the physical and spiritual life of man were of great importance. A huge step forward was made in the study of human anatomy, thanks to the works of Vesalius, Leonardo da Vinci, and others. Some of the anatomists and artists paid great attention to variations in human organs, as well as different types of physique. The German artist A. Durer, for example, wrote a special treatise "Four books on proportions" (1528). The great geographical discoveries (15-16 centuries) expanded the horizons of anthropological knowledge, acquainting, albeit superficially, Europeans with the racial types of the peoples of East Asia (travels of Plano Carpini, Rubruk, Marco Polo), the population of America (H. Columbus), with the peoples of Eastern Siberia (S. Dezhnev), Tierra del Fuego and Oceania (F. Magellan). The significance of Magellan's round-the-world voyage was most important for A. in the sense that, having confirmed the existence of antipodes (See Antipodes), it showed the incompatibility of science with the biblical legend of the creation of man in the "Holy Land", a significant event in the history of A. 17 in. were the first descriptions of the anatomy of anthropomorphic monkeys, for example, by the Englishman E. Tyson, who studied the corpse of a chimpanzee in 1699. In the 18th century the first more or less serious attempts were also made to build scientific hypotheses about the origin of man and his place in nature: in France - J. La Mettrie, D. Diderot, K. Helvetius, J. Buffon, in Germany - I. Kant, in Russia - A. N. Radishchev. Of great importance for A. was the work of the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus, who in his work The System of Nature (1st ed. 1735; 10th ed. 1758) singled out a detachment of primates among mammals and subdivided it into four genera - man, monkey, lemur and bat. mouse. In accordance with the double, or binary, nomenclature he created, Linnaeus designated a person with the term “Homo sapiens” (Homo sapiens), dividing it into four races, according to the number of then well-known continents - Homo sapiens European, Asian, African and American. This was far from the only attempt to classify human races in the 18th century. Following the Frenchman F. Bernier (1684), the system of races was built by J. Buffon, I. Kant, the German anatomist and anthropologist I. Blumenbach, and others. Knowledge of the anthropological types of Australia and Oceania has greatly expanded - mainly due to the travels of J. Cook; Siberia - as a result of expeditions of Russian scientists (see below). The comparative anatomical study of primates has advanced. Attempts to develop methods of comparative description in A. were made by the Dutch anatomist P. Camper, who proposed to use a comparison of people and animals according to the size of the facial angle. The most important event in the history of A. was the establishment of the theory of evolution in biology. The French naturalist J. Lamarck and, to a much greater extent, C. Darwin, had an enormous influence on all sections of anthropology, especially on the development of the question of the position of man in the organic world. Lamarck devoted several pages to the problem of anthropogenesis in the Philosophy of Zoology (1809), and C. Darwin devoted two large works - The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection (1871) and The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). As a result of these works, as well as the writings of Darwin's followers, mainly the English scientist T. Huxley and the German scientist E. Haeckel, interest in the remains of the bones of fossil monkeys and ancient people, in the comparative anatomy and physiology of primates, in Paleolithic tools and their geological dating, increased. . Attention has increased to the study of body structure variations in humans and related forms, to the question of the relationship between the individual development of humans and primates and their position in the animal system. In the 20th century a huge number of finds of fossil remains of higher primates and humans - Gigantopithecus ov,
australopithecines (See Australopithecus),
Pithecanthropus ov,
Neanderthals (See Neanderthals), etc. Great merit in the study of these materials belongs to the French scientists M. Boole, A. Vallois, J. Rivto, the German scientist G. Schwalbe, the English scientists A. Keess, W. E. Le Gros Clark, L. Leakey, the American scientist F. Weidenreich , A. Hrdlichke, the Dutch scientist E. Dubois, G. G. R. Koenigswald, L. Bolk, the Swiss scientist I. Hürzeler, A. Schultz, the Czech scientist E. Vlchek and many others. The influence of the evolutionary principle extended to the study of human races, as a result of which the classification tables were replaced in race science by the construction of "family trees". Studies of continuous variability have been developed. In order to be able to take into account small differences between closely related races, new methods for their determination were developed, much more accurate than the previous ones. Due to the unification of the methodology, a decrease in research errors and the possibility of comparing the results of measurements made by different scientists are achieved. Statistical processing of mass materials required the development of mathematical techniques that made it possible to calculate not only arithmetic averages, but also indicators characterizing the patterns of distribution and dispersion of features, as well as the degree of relationship between sizes (see Biometrics). By the 20th century The flourishing of the use of mathematical statistics in all areas of A., which made it possible to introduce greater accuracy into the study of age morphology, individual variability, and professional, sports, and applied A. in the middle of the 19th century. dates back to the formation of A. as an independent science. The greatest merit here belongs to the French surgeon, anatomist, and anthropologist P. Broca, who founded the Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, whose program included the study of the biology of the human race in connection with its culture. Shortly after the foundation of the society, the Laboratory for Anthropological Research (1868) and the School of Anthropology (1875) were organized in Paris. Following France, they began to organize anthropological institutions in other countries - in London (1863), Moscow (1864), Madrid (1865), Florence (1868), Berlin (1869), Vienna (1870), etc. The rise of these societies, and the place that the study of human races has occupied in the scientific programs of some of them, is due in part to the historical setting of the time. The 19th century was characterized by a huge scale of colonial expansion. Public attention in Europe was also drawn to the aggravated national question. The struggle for the freedom and unity of Italy, the fate of the population of Alsace and Lorraine after the Franco-Prussian war made us think, in particular, about the distinction between the concepts of “nation” and “race”. It is known that it was the question of the separation of Ireland from England that prompted T. Huxley to intensify the development of the concept of "race". The racial issue became even more acute in connection with the American Civil War between the Northern and Southern states (1861-65). These events had a strong influence on the position of some anthropological societies in the racial problem. Thus, the president of the London Anthropological Society, J. Hunt, a supporter of slavery, in his keynote speech "The Negro's Place in Nature" made an attempt (1864) to scientifically substantiate the "theory" of race inequality. For the 2nd half of the 19th century. and 20th c. characteristic is the desire to synthesize two important areas of anthropology—the theory of anthropogenesis and the doctrine of races. The absence of a dialectical understanding of the process of human evolution often led to a false idea of modern races as supposedly at different stages of the progressive development of mankind. Reactionary trends appeared, which were called Social Darwinism, anthroposociology, political anthropology, etc. These false teachings are various forms of racism, which formed the basis of the state ideology of Hitler's Germany and brought innumerable disasters to mankind. After the defeat of German fascism, racist theories continue to spread in a number of foreign countries, especially in South Africa, Rhodesia, and the USA. The correct synthesis of race studies and anthropogenesis, and thus the methodological justification of anthropology as a single discipline, became possible only with the adoption of the theory of the qualitative originality of human evolution. This theory was most consistently applied in the works of Soviet anthropologists, who inherited and continued the traditions of their predecessors and teachers. A. in Russia originated in the early 18th century. The Kunstkamera, founded by Peter I, can be considered the cradle of Russian museums, in which anatomical preparations, as well as preparations of various deformities, occupied an important place. The foundations for the development of human anatomy in Russia were laid by the works of A. P. Protasov, S. G. Zabelin, A. M. Shumlyansky, and others. The Great Northern Expedition (1733-43) was organized, and the anthropological program was developed in detail in the instructions compiled by the expedition member G.F. Miller. Valuable anthropological information about the peoples of Siberia and the Far East was collected by S. P. Krasheninnikov (1755), as well as by members of the academic expedition led by P. P. Pallas (1768-1774). At the beginning of the 19th century Russian navigators and researchers made more than 30 round-the-world trips, which enriched science with ethnographic and anthropological information about many peoples of the world. A work dealing with the problem of man's place in nature was A. N. Radishchev's treatise "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality", written in 1792-96 in the Ilim exile. In the 19th century Of outstanding importance were the anthropological works of K. M. Baer, who replenished the craniological collections of the anatomical cabinet of the St. Baer also contributed to the development of anthropology by including ethnographic and anthropological research in the program of the Geographical Society, founded in 1845. The revolutionary democrats, in particular N. G. Chernyshevsky, played an important role in the development of art by propagating materialism and substantiating the idea that differences in the culture of peoples arose as a result of different historical sources. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay made a great contribution to the history of peoples, and not their race. He was the first to substantiate the idea of the equality of the human races in Russian agriculture. The founder of the anthropological school at Moscow University, which had an enormous influence on the development of anthropology in Russia, was A. P. Bogdanov, professor of zoology. In 1864 he founded the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers, which became the center of racial and other anthropological studies. In 1879 Bogdanov organized an Anthropological Exhibition in Moscow, which received international recognition. Her collections formed the basis of the Museum of Anthropology at Moscow University. Bogdanov's successor was D. N. Anuchin, who in his research combined architecture, ethnography, archeology, and geography. In 1919, with the assistance of V. V. Bunak, he founded the Department of Anthropology at Moscow University, and in 1922, the Institute of Anthropology. Bunak played a significant role in the development of all sections of A. in the USSR. Soviet astronomy is characterized by the enormous scope of research in many of its branches, the planning of work, and the development of unified methods. In the field of the doctrine of anthropogenesis, ethnic anthropology, and human morphology, a great deal of material has been accumulated and major theoretical generalizations have been made. In the field of anthropogenesis, the comparative anatomy of various organs of humans and monkeys was studied. The main directions in the development of the brain of primates and the specific features of the structure of the human brain in connection with the formation of its labor and speech activity were elucidated (Yu. G. Shevchenko and others). A number of studies are devoted to the evolution and structure of the hand (E. I. Danilova). The relationship between human ontogeny and its phylogeny was studied, and the main provisions of the theory of phylembryogenesis by A. N. Severtsov were confirmed in relation to anthropological material. Important discoveries have been made of fossils of the lower narrow-nosed monkeys in southeastern Europe and of the remains of teeth of an anthropoid ape of the Tertiary period in the Caucasus. Of particular importance are the finds of bone remains of Mousterian people in the Kiik-Koba grotto in the Crimea (G. A. Bonch-Osmolovsky, 1924), in the Teshyk-Tash grotto (See Teshik-Tash) in Central Asia (A. P. Okladnikov, 1938). ) and in the Staroselie grotto in the Crimea (A. A. Formozov, 1953), as well as the molar tooth of the Mousterian man in the Dzhruchula cave in the Caucasus (L. K. Gabunia et al., 1961). On the basis of these and other numerous facts, a stadial theory of human evolution was constructed, and the problems of the systematics and genealogy of man, the structure and lifestyle of his closest ancestors, the ancestral home of man, the pace, factors and phenomena of unevenness in his evolution were highlighted (M. S. Voino, M. A. Gremyatsky, G. F. Debets, V. I. Kochetkova, M. F. Nesturkh, Ya. Ya. Roginsky, M. I. Uryson, E. N. Khrisanfova, V. P. Yakimov and others. ). In the section of racial studies, systematic collections of anthropological material, covering almost the entire territory of the USSR, were of great importance. These data made it possible to resolve questions about the origin and formation of many peoples of the USSR by using modern and fossil material as a historical source. The concept of “human race” itself was analyzed, as well as the degree of dynamism and stability of the race, the relationship between race and constitution, various methods of racial analysis (M. S. Akimova, V. P. Alekseev, V. V. Bunak, I. I. Gokhman , V. V. Ginzburg, G. F. Debets, T. S. Konduktorova, M. G. Levin, N. S. Rozov, T. A. Trofimova, N. N. Cheboksarov, A. I. Yarkho, etc. .). A significant place was occupied by work on the age-related variability of racial characteristics in children (N. N. Miklashevskaya) and in adults (A. I. Yarkho, G. L. Khit). Studies in the field of population genetics based on somatic and serological materials have sharply increased (Yu. G. Rychkov). Generalizations are made concerning the systematics, mutual relationship and origin of human races. In the field of human morphology, a doctrine was developed on physical development, body proportions, constitution, relationships between body sizes, patterns of growth (in particular, on the periodization of this process and the uneven growth of individual segments of the body), on the methods of anthropometry (D. I. Aron, V V. Bunak, P. N. Bashkirov, P. I. Zenkevich, A. A. Malinovsky, V. G. Shtefko, A. I. Yarkho, etc.). The study of the relationship between morphological and functional features has expanded (T. I. Alekseeva and others). Dermatoglyphics was studied in detail (M. V. Volotskoy, T. D. Gladkova, P. S. Semenovsky). Racial and sexual characteristics in the structure of teeth were studied by A. A. Zubov. Soviet anthropologists have carried out extensive research on the topical problem of acceleration (see Acceleration), that is, the acceleration of the growth and physiological development of children observed almost everywhere (V. G. Vlastovskii, V. S. Solovieva). Questions were studied about the application of mathematical methods to solving anthropological problems, for example, such as establishing patterns of variability of signs and their combinations, analysis of intragroup variation factors, studying the measure of correspondence of the distribution of measuring signs to a normal curve, analysis of intergroup variability, in particular, establishing the reality of differences between groups of people, territorial, professional, and others (M. V. Ignatiev, Yu. S. Kurshakova, A. V. Pugacheva, V. P. Chtetsov, and others). The conclusions were applied in industry: they made it possible to build anthropological standards for clothing, shoes, hats, gloves, seats in buses, wagons, school desks, etc. A direct benefit is provided by A.'s data in forensic medicine, in particular for the so-called. verbal portraits, to compile tables that allow more or less likely to determine the sex, age and race of the bone remains. Anthropogenetics has found application in resolving disputed paternity. In addition to Moscow University, where there is a special Scientific Research Institute of A. and where specialists in anthropology are trained at the Department of A. of the Faculty of Biology, research on A. in the USSR is carried out in various laboratories, at institutes of the Academy of Sciences, at universities and other institutions of Leningrad, Kyiv , Tbilisi, Tartu, Riga, Tomsk, and others. Particularly noteworthy is the development of aviation in the union republics: the Georgian SSR (M. G. Abdushelishvili), the Kazakh SSR (O. Ismagulov), and the Uzbek SSR (L. V. Oshanin, V. Ya. Zezenkova, K. Nadzhimov), Ukrainian SSR (L. P. Nikolaev, V. D. Dyachenko), Estonian SSR (Yu. M. Aul, K. Yu. Mark). Anthropological institutions in the USSR are doing a great job of disseminating knowledge among the population through the publication of books, pamphlets, lectures on topics devoted to the formation of man, the formation of human races, and so on. The Museum of the Institute of Anthropology of Moscow University and the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Leningrad play a significant role in the promotion of anthropological knowledge. Lit.: Anuchin D.N., A quick look at the past of anthropology and its tasks in Russia, Russian Anthropological Journal, 1900, No. 1; Bunak V. V., The current state and immediate tasks of Soviet anthropology, "Issues of Anthropology", 1962, c. 10; Bunak V. V., Nesturkh M. F., Roginsky Ya. I., Anthropology. Short course, M., 1941; Ginzburg V. V., Elements of anthropology for physicians, L., 1963; Levin M. G., Essays on the history of anthropology in Russia, M. 1960; Roginsky Ya. Ya., Levin M. G., Anthropology, 2nd ed., M., 1963; Grimm G., Fundamentals of constitutional biology and anthropometry, M., 1967; Human Biology, Oxford, 1964; Jubilé du Centenaire de la Société d'Antropologie de Paris, P., 1959; Martin D., Lehrbuch der Antropolgie in systematischer Darstellung, 3 Aufl., Bd 1-2, Stuttg., 1956-60; Montagu, A., An introduction to physical anthropology, 3 ed., Springfield, 1960. Periodicals:"Problems of Anthropology", Moscow (since 1960); "L" Anthropologie", Paris (since 1890); "Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute", London (c 1871); "Zeitschrift für Morphologic und Anthropologie", Stuttgart (c 1899); "Przegd Anthropologiczny", Poznan (c 1926 ); "L" Anthropologie ", Praque (1923-41); "American Journal of Physical Anthropology", Philadelphia (since 1918); "Current Anthropology", Chicago (c.1960). Ya. Ya. Roginsky.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
Synonyms:See what "Anthropology" is in other dictionaries:
The field of scientific knowledge, within the framework of which the fundamental problems of human existence in the natural and arts environment are studied. In modern science meet different. options for systematization anthropopol. disciplines. So, to A. include: ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies
Anthropology(from anthropo... + ...logy) - an intersectoral discipline that studies the biological, cultural and social evolution of man as a special species and human society (mainly pre-literate era) as a special type of social organization. It includes many branches, subdisciplines, directions, thematic sections, research paradigms, scientific schools. Initially, anthropology was understood as the science of the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and various races, not including social and cultural characteristics. Today's anthropologists seek to establish the similarities and differences in the social forms of life and cultural rites, religious beliefs and economic systems of the most diverse types of societies - ancient and modern.
After expanding the thematic field of anthropology, its definition as “a science that studies the formation of human races, normal variations in the physical structure of a person within these races, including in connection with the characteristics of the environment surrounding people,” now refers only to general (biological, physical) anthropology.
The term "anthropology" was introduced into scientific circulation mainly in English-speaking countries (and in the 90s in Russia). In Germany it is replaced by ethnography, and in France by ethnology. The term "anthropology" is interpreted in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, anthropology is exclusively the study of man (the relationship between the body and the brain, anatomy and physiology). In the USSR, the term "anthropology" was used to refer to physical anthropology. One of the leading specialists in the field of anthropology, E.A. Orlova says:
“Anthropology as a field of scientific research finally took shape in the last quarter of the 19th century and was associated with the task of fully understanding man. Here they united: anthropology proper, or the natural history of man, including his embryology, biology, anatomy, psychophysiology; paleoethnology, or pre-history - the origin, the primitive state of man; ethnology - the spread of man on Earth, the study of his behavior and customs; sociology - the relationship of people among themselves; linguistics - the formation and existence of languages, folklore; mythology - the emergence, history and interaction of religions; social geography - the impact on humans of climate and natural landscapes; demography - statistical data on the composition and distribution of the human population.
In a broad sense, anthropology is interpreted abroad as the science of humanity in the unity of its cultural and social aspects. It studies tools, techniques and technology, traditions and customs, beliefs and values, social institutions, the family, marriage and kinship, economic mechanisms, the evolution of art, the struggle for prestige, and so on. In an extended interpretation, anthropology covers both the humanities and the social sciences. In a broad sense, anthropology includes anthropology proper, or the natural history of man; paleoethnology or prehistory; ethnology - the science of the distribution of man on earth, his behavior and customs; sociology, which examines the relationship of people among themselves; linguistics; mythology; social geography, devoted to the impact of climate and natural landscapes on humans; demography, representing statistical data on the composition and distribution of human populations, medical anthropology (human psychology, human genetics), human ecology, etc.
In the USA, according to one of the official sources in anthropology, there are four disciplines: physical, archaeological, cultural and linguistic anthropology, in the UK - only three: physical anthropology, archeology and social anthropology. However, there are other versions (see Fig. 1 and 2). In Russia, an unambiguous understanding of the disciplines included in anthropology has not developed. The proposed typologies repeat those disciplines, schools and trends that exist in the West. In Russia, instead of anthropology, there was ethnography, which in England and the USA is considered a branch or an empirical type of anthropology. Today, in numerous monographs, articles and textbooks published both abroad and in Russia, one can find a very wide and constantly changing list of disciplines and areas included in anthropology: philosophical anthropology, theological anthropology, psychological anthropology, social anthropology, cultural anthropology, historical anthropology, urban anthropology, anthropology of religion, symbolic anthropology, cognitive anthropology, political anthropology, economic anthropology, applied anthropology, linguistic anthropology, etc. It can be stated that there is no single typology of disciplines and directions of anthropology in the literature. Most often in the domestic literature, the main sections of anthropology are considered to be human morphology, the doctrine of anthropogenesis and racial science. From the middle of the twentieth century the complex of disciplines united under the name "human biology" is intensively developing (the study of physiological, biochemical and genetic factors that affect variations in the structure and development of the human body).
Rice. 1. Disciplinary terminology in the USA
Rice. 2. Disciplinary terminology in Europe
A source: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1996.
Notes:
*) The term "social anthropology" is used in Great Britain instead of two other terms - "ethnology" and "cultural anthropology".
**) The current trend in the development of scientific knowledge in Western Europe, in particular in France, is to use three terms when describing the levels of research that were once established in the USA: "ethnography", "ethnology", "social anthropology". In Eastern and Central Europe, the term "ethnography" is used only in the sense of "ethnology".
Among the social sciences, anthropology occupies a special time, as it traces the formation of the human race over several million years. No other discipline has ventured so far into the historical wilds of Homo sapiens. The factual material accumulated by sociology concerns a small historical period - the last 100–150 years. Anthropologists have been studying the evolution of the economic, social, political, and spiritual spheres of human society since ancient times.
Anthropology has not only the widest range of time for the study of the human race, but also the most diverse thematic range. It's no joke to say that she studies the most familiar things for all of us, which is, for example, an ordinary human hand, and the most exotic phenomena - for example, the marriage ceremonies of Australian Aborigines. It seems that anthropologists are subject to everything - the linguistic forms of the tribes living in the Amazon Delta, and the social life of monkeys living in the rainforests of the subtropical zone, and the remains of animals miraculously preserved at the site of primitive people. And all this is necessary in order to answer the questions: who are we, where did we come from, how did we develop, why did we have certain forms of social organization, cultural practices, spiritual symbols, tools of labor.
It was anthropologists who forced sociologists to take a broader look at human society, not to limit themselves to its industrial forms, not to consider that the social forms that exist today are necessarily multi-million and multi-billion associations. Next to them, somewhere in the hidden corners of New Guinea, live tiny groups of hunter-gatherers, leading a solitary life, who have preserved for us our historical past in its original form. We must be grateful to them, protect and preserve the living monuments of antiquity.
Anthropology performs an important moral function - it tries to rid our consciousness of ethnocentrism, the habit of underestimating other cultures, the desire to evaluate a foreign culture from the standpoint of the norms and values of one's own culture. The broad comparative cultural perspective used by anthropology helps to understand our own society more deeply, to look at it differently than was previously accepted. A look at one's own society from the outside enriches the sociological vision of the world.
Rice. 3. Stages of social and political evolution of society: pre-human herd, family, human race, tribe, chiefdom, state
Anthroposcopy (descriptive technique), anthropometry (measuring technique), craniology (study of the skull), osteology (study of the bone skeleton), odontology (study of the dental system), dermatoglyphics (study of the skin relief), plastic reconstruction (restoration of the human face) are important methods of anthropological research. on the skull), microanatomy, anthropological photography, methods of radiology, family study, longitudinal (long-term) and transverse (one-time) study of groups, techniques for restoring the living appearance of a person from his skull, mapping racial characteristics, included (participating) observation of aboriginal cultures, etc.
Traditionally, it was believed that anthropology is limited to the study of only primitive (pre-literate) societies and does not affect modern ones (Fig. 4). In contrast, sociology does not study ancient societies, whose inhabitants can no longer be interviewed by the questionnaire methods inherent in it, but only modern ones.
At one time, K. Levi-Strauss proposed to distinguish between the subjects of anthropology and sociology according to the following criterion: sociology studies conscious actions, anthropology - unconscious ones (customs, mores). The proposal is tempting, if we take into account the advice of M. Weber: it is better for sociology to take up the study of goal-oriented and value-rational actions, and give affective and traditional action to other sciences. Affective actions, apparently, are studied by psychology, but traditional actions (customs and mores) are quite within the power of anthropology.
Today, however, ideas about the subject of anthropology have changed. It is believed that anthropology has a broad humanistic view of the world.
Rice. 4. Anthropologists study the customs and traditions of forgotten peoples and tribes
The world's first department of sociology at the University of Chicago (1892) actually combined sociology and anthropology. For many years anthropology was considered the academic partner of sociology. In the 20s. there were a huge number of departments of sociology and anthropology. Only by 1965, when anthropology received the status of an independent academic discipline, these departments were separated. In England, academic sociology developed from the very beginning in close alliance with social anthropology. A. Radcliffe-Brown and B. Malinovsky made a significant contribution to the development of both sciences. The former even called anthropology comparative sociology. And today there are specialists who believe that anthropology and social psychology are sections of sociology, and not independent sciences. In France, as in England and the USA, for the first time in 20 years of the twentieth century. academic sociology was closely intertwined with anthropology. True, in the USA sociology dominated anthropology, while in England and France it was inferior to it.
As an independent science, anthropology was formed in the middle of the nineteenth century. It has received the greatest development in Great Britain and the USA. In Great Britain, anthropology developed on the basis of ethnographic material obtained outside the country - in numerous colonies. English scientists often traveled to different parts of the world in search of lost primitive tribes. In other European countries, anthropology developed on the basis of local folklore and peasant culture, it was directed, as it were, inward and was more often called ethnology. In the United States, anthropology was formed in a very specific cultural area - the study of the American Indians, i.e. original inhabitants of the continent.
Today, however, the horizon of scientific anthropologists' search has expanded dramatically. The prominent American anthropologist Konrad Kottak writes:
“Anthropology presupposes a broad humanistic view of the world based on comparative, so-called cross-cultural studies. In other words, on the comparison of different cultures and different peoples. Although most people to this day are convinced that anthropologists limit themselves to the study of fossil and pre-industrial cultures. But I assure you that anthropology is much more than just the study of primitive societies. Literally all societies, both ancient and modern, fall into her horizon, and she tries to describe them by comparing and contrasting them with each other.
At the same time, any other social science does not go beyond one type of society, usually an industrial one, described using the example of the United States or Canada. Only anthropology provides a person with a unique opportunity to visit all societies at once, to consider them from a cross-cultural perspective, i.e. comparing the traditions and customs of different countries.
The central theme of general anthropology, as well as some of its areas, are anthropogenesis and anthroposociogenesis.
Anthropogenesis(from the Greek anthropos - man and genesis - origin) - the origin and development of all types of the genus Man (Homo), considered in biological, mental and sociocultural terms. The basis of the origin of the most ancient people at the beginning of the Quaternary period on the African continent from prehumans of the genus Australopithecus is the features of group behavior, a high level of development of receptor systems, motor abilities, especially limbs, and secondarily - the brain. The transition to a terrestrial way of life and a vertical position of the body made it possible to free the forelimbs. This led to a powerful development of manipulative activity and the formation of tool actions, the logic of development of which led to the special manufacture of tools. In the process of joint work, group relations turned into social ones, for the service of which articulate speech and consciousness were formed.
Anthroposociogenesis(from Greek - anthropos - man, lat. - societas - society and Greek genesis - origin) - a historically long process of becoming a person from a biological being into a social and cultural being - is an inseparable unity of two parallel processes: anthropogenesis (human formation) and sociogenesis (development of society). In Marxist anthropological science, it is believed that sociogenesis is the essence of anthropogenesis. Representing two inextricably linked sides of one single process - anthroposociogenesis, anthropogenesis and sociogenesis coincide in time.
anthropology) A., or the science of man, is a label that could well be attached to what is commonly called psychology. Like psychology, psychology developed as a broad discipline devoted to the scientific study of man; like psychology, A. is a heterogeneous discipline, representatives of which can not always be clearly distinguished from representatives of other disciplines involved in the scientific study of man. What most consistently distinguishes A. from related disciplines is its focus on comparing objects with each other (especially pre-literate or so-called "primitive" languages), an interest expressed both in a careful description of the characteristics specific ob-in, and in the formulation of principles, to-rye reflect the actual knowledge of the variations of these characteristics in different ob-vah. This interest manifests itself in various ways in three broad sub-disciplines: 1. Archeology, or the study of human prehistory. about-in, based on the conclusions made on the basis of physical. evidence of their existence, obtained as a result of excavations. 2. Physical A., or the study of the origin of people. groups by research. physical distribution. characteristics (incl. not only macroscopic, but also microscopic characteristics, such as the chemical composition of the blood and genes) and a comparative study of other species, related people. mind genetically or by living conditions. Interspecific comparison extends to behavioral issled., to-rye are similar to nek-ry types issled. in Comparative Psychology and Zoology of Behavior. 3. Socio-cultural A., who studies the cultural and social. human structures. about-in. Along with various special areas, this also includes anthropological linguistics, representatives of which have much more in common with linguists than with other categories of anthropologists. All these sub-disciplines of A. are potentially relevant to one or another aspect of psychology. The rest of this article, however, will be devoted to the consideration of sociocultural A., which has the most developed relationship with psychology and emphasizes its relevance to psychology. With a scientific introduction to most sections of social and cultural A. can be found in the textbook, ed. Honigmann. Anthropological method Anthropologists have a large set of research methods, some of which were borrowed from other social. scientific disciplines. Exclusively anthropological method are field researches., to-rye assume residing of the researcher in ob-ve studied by it throughout the long period of time; participation, as far as possible, in his daily life; observation of such a life even when the researcher cannot take an active part in it, and interviewing the members of this society not only as specific people studied for specific purposes, but also as informants - that is, e., carriers of information. about the ob-ve, his daily life and beliefs. The anthropological theory of anthropological theory is associated with attempts to explain the history of culture. At the heart of most of these theories is the concept of evolution, which takes various and sometimes unexpected forms. Anthropologists of the 19th century painted an oversimplified picture of the development of culture as a sequential passage through a series of interrelated stages. At the beginning of the XX century. this approach b. h. gave way to functionalism, which studies how the distinctive features inherent in a successfully developing culture support and condition each other. Psychologists can find similarities in the ideas underlying the work of the functionalists with those of many psychologists. theories, and therefore it is not surprising that some anthropological researchers have found it useful to use the concepts of behaviorism and psychoanalysis in developing their explanations of culture. Less clear connection with psychology and sometimes even avoidance of turning to psychol. The theory is distinguished by two other anthropological approaches: diffusionism, which develops systematic knowledge about the spread and transfer of cultural characteristics from one region to another, and cognitive, or structural A., views culture as a network of meanings and meanings to be interpreted. Field research material as a source of data Conducting field research. can be motivated by theory. the anthropologist's interests and personal interest in a particular geographic area or people. All the accumulated material of field research., Covering various cultures around the world, is the result of many years of A.'s efforts to develop theories. problems and the totality of interests of all social. researchers. This body of ethnography (as the scientific study of cultures is called) is also used by psychologists who try to find answers to their questions; in most cases, such ethnographic data are the only source of information from which you can get the desired answer, since they contain information about many societies that either no longer exist or have undergone significant changes as a result of prolonged contacts with industrial societies. Are all people communities prone to war? Does the burden of war always fall on Ch. arr. on the shoulders of men and not women? Is belief in life after death widespread? Does the basis of org-ii of all about-in the family? Is incest always forbidden? Ethnographic records provide answers to such questions. While such answers are not always simple, they do provide a more accurate knowledge of human universals. nature in comparison with what can be obtained by simply generalizing knowledge only about one's own about-ve and some others when using them as primary sources. Knowledge of human universals. nature turns out to be very useful in explaining individual development in any individual about-ve and in planning psychol. research Universality, of course, does not imply the existence of some innate and non-acquired propensity. Any individual develops in a society, and all societies develop certain rules, on the basis of which control is exercised over the socialization of its new members. Ways of Thinking Anthropologists have made great efforts to understand the meaning of rituals, myths, magical rites, and other cultural phenomena and to describe the ways of thinking associated with them. Like literary critics trying to understand a particular work of art, they gravitate more towards a careful study of the specific material and its context than to abstraction and the creation of a general theory. Therefore, the result of such research, as a rule, is a detailed interpretation of the existing specific set of facts in relation to a particular ob-va, and not a theory that claims to be universally valid, and this interpretation is no easier to empirically verify than the interpretation of a work of art by a literary critic. However, cognitive anthropologists touch on such aspects of thinking that cognitive psychologists pay little attention to, and publications appearing in this area make a valuable contribution to the study of people. thinking. Universality of process B. h. psychol. research is heavily criticized on the grounds that their conclusions may be culturally biased: if the resulting principles have been tested within only one culture, they are likely to be valid only for itself. Psychologists can respond to these criticisms by conducting re-examinations. in the conditions of other cultures; the results of this kind of research. summarized in cross-cultural psychology manuals. At the same time, with respect to certain conclusions, a less direct approach, but allowing for broader conclusions, can be applied. Nek-ry features of culture cause people. learning, a cut can lead to the development of other features, and this process, to a certain extent, can be predicted on the basis of principles derived from monocultural studies. Anthropological knowledge is predominantly a product of the 20th century. However, over time, opportunities for field research. pre-written about-in, especially those to-rye have not yet undergone radical changes as a result of interaction with industrial about-you, there are fewer and fewer. Methods and theories developed by anthropologists are now increasingly used in the course of research of our own and other industrial societies. See also Acculturation, Cross-cultural psychology, Cultural differences, Rites of passage, Social psychology, Taboo I. L. Child
Anthropology is a branch of natural science that occupies a special place among the biological sciences. It studies the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races. This is the science of the variability of the human body in space and time, the laws of this variability and the factors that govern it. Anthropology, as it were, crowns natural science. But since human life is inextricably linked with the social environment, then anthropology, studying a person, enters the area where there are socio-historical patterns. This is the specificity of anthropology, the complexity of its research, this is its difference from other biological sciences, its direct connection with the historical sciences - archeology, ethnography, history.
Considering the consistent development of individual branches of natural science, Engels wrote: “At the end of the last century, the foundations of geology are laid, in modern times - the so-called (unsuccessfully) anthropology, which mediates the transition from the morphology and physiology of man and his races to history” . This characterization of anthropology is an application to concrete science of Engels' general view of the classification of sciences. He pointed out that each science analyzes a separate form of motion of matter or a number of forms of motion, interconnected and passing into each other. Therefore, the classification of sciences is a classification or hierarchy of forms of movement. “Just as one form of movement develops from another, so the reflections of these forms, the various sciences, must necessarily follow one from the other.” Anthropology is a branch of natural science that studies the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races. But since man is a qualitatively unique being, whose life can proceed only in the conditions of society and collectively carried out production, it is clear that anthropology cannot be put on a par with the private branches of zoology. Anthropology cannot study man from the same positions from which entomology studies insects, ornithology studies birds, and so on. More than 200 sciences study human anthropology. Anthropology has an interdisciplinary character. We note the sciences that are most directly related to anthropology:
· Biology is a system of sciences about living nature. Studies the structure and functioning of a living system. Biology is a natural science for the study of man in the world around him.
· Psychology - studies the psyche of human and animal behavior. Social psychology - studies interpersonal relationships in small human groups. Sociology - considers social phenomena, considered through the prism of human interaction. From the point of view of anthropology, the relationship of man in society is of interest.
· Ethnography (translated from Greek. tribe, people) or ethnology (ethnology) - science studies the life and cult of the characteristics of the peoples of the world.
Ethnos - the origin of peoples. Ethnography - the resettlement of peoples. Philosophy - study the most general laws of society and knowledge.
· Culturology - the study of the function of culture, factors of development, the interaction of culture, the development of symbolic systems.
· Anthropology - culture as an indicator of human development.
A task anthropology - to trace the process of transition from biological laws, which governed the existence of the animal ancestor of man, to social laws. Thus, anthropology occupies a special place in the circle of biological disciplines. Having the subject of its study of man, it cannot but go beyond the limits of questions of natural history; studying a person, it enters the field of knowledge where socio-historical factors operate. From this boundary position of anthropology in a number of sciences, its relation to related branches of knowledge also follows. Anthropology is inextricably linked with other biological sciences and at the same time is in close contact with the social sciences. Anthropology in this sense, as it were, crowns natural science. The founder of anthropological science in Russia, A.P. Bogdanov, in a speech at a solemn meeting of Moscow University in January 1876, pointed out that natural science without anthropology remains incomplete and only "with anthropology, natural science is not some kind of special island, separated by an abyss from other sciences purely human, so to speak, that is, concerning the highest, the most fascinating aspects of its nature, its history and its existence for the mind.
Anthropology includes three main sections: 1) morphology, 2) anthropogenesis and 3) racial science, or ethnic anthropology.
The section of morphology resolves issues related to: a) the individual variability of the physical type, b) its age-related changes from the early stages of embryonic development to old age, inclusive, c) the phenomena of sexual dimorphism, and, finally, d) the analysis of those features of the physical organization of a person, that arise under the influence of various living and working conditions.
The section of anthropogenesis focuses on the changes that the nature of the closest ancestor of man undergoes, and then of man himself during the Quaternary period. This is the morphology of man and his predecessor, viewed in time, measured by the geological scale. The section of race studies devoted to the study of similarities and differences between human races can be called by analogy with the section of anthropogenesis morphology considered in space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by man.
It goes without saying that these brief characteristics should not be understood in such a way that morphology studies a person outside of time and space, racial science - outside of an epoch, and the section of anthropogenesis - outside of territory. Of course, knowledge of the place of origin of man is also important for the problem of anthropogenesis; in the same way, for racial science, it is necessary to study the history of the emergence of races and their genealogy, and, finally, for morphology, the connection of the patterns of variability discovered by it with facts that have come down from the distant past of mankind, on the one hand, and from various areas of distribution of people in the present, on the other, is essential. . However, the most important task of the section of anthropogenesis is the study of the process of becoming a person and, above all, the sequence of the emergence of his properties and signs; in the section of morphology, the main problem is the study of the factors and manifestations of variability in modern man, i.e., the “mechanisms” of shaping themselves; and, finally, in the section of race science, the main goal is to find those causes that explain the spread of human races on the surface of the Earth.
The section of morphology consists of: 1) merology (from the Greek "meros" - part), which studies the variations of individual human organs and individual tissues, as well as their mutual connection, and 2) somatology (from the Greek "soma" - body), which studies the structure of the human body as a whole, i.e., the patterns of variations in height, mass, chest circumference, proportions, etc. An important subsection of somatology is that branch of anthropology that aims to establish standards or norms for the size of the human body, i.e. the most common combinations of sizes, and develops calculation methods that allow you to establish how often certain deviations from these combinations occur. Anthropology thus makes it possible to organize, on a completely scientific basis, the mass production of items for individual use (shoes, clothing, hats, gloves, furniture, etc.), which is especially important in the conditions of a planned organization of the national economy. Morphology is of great importance for establishing the norms of physical development at different ages, as well as variations in physique and their connection with the physiological characteristics of the body.
The most important sub-disciplines for the morphology section are normal anatomy, embryology and human histology. It is essential to note the differences between normal anatomy and morphology. Normal anatomy studies a person as a certain generalized type and gives a summary characteristic of an “average” person. Morphology, on the other hand, focuses its attention on variations of type and seeks to comprehend the causes, regularities, and significance of these deviations from the average type.
The anthropogenesis section deals with questions about the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relationship as a zoological species to other primates, the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates went, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, the allocation of stages in the process of human evolution, the study of conditions and causes development of modern man.
The section of anthropogenesis includes: 1) primate science, i.e. the study of modern and fossil monkeys and semi-monkeys, 2) human evolutionary anatomy, 3) paleoanthropology, i.e. the study of fossil forms of man. The necessary auxiliary disciplines for this section are: from the sciences of natural history - geology of the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, physiology of higher nervous activity; from the socio-historical sciences - the archeology of the Paleolithic; of the philosophical sciences -- psychology.
Racial science, or ethnic anthropology, studies the classification of racial types, their distribution across the Earth, the history of the formation of races, the causes of race formation and the patterns of changes in racial types. Among the related disciplines, with which racial science is especially closely in contact, one should name from the range of biological sciences - genetics and biometrics, and from the socio-historical sciences - archeology of the late Paleolithic and subsequent eras, ethnography, linguistics and history. The terms "racial science" and "ethnic anthropology" are often used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, ethnic anthropology is only a part of racial science that studies the anthropological composition of the peoples of the world and the problem of ethnogenesis. Anthropology as a whole, and in particular the sections devoted to the problem of the origin of man and his races, from the very birth of knowledge of human nature, have been the scene of a fierce ideological struggle between materialistic science, on the one hand, and idealistic and metaphysical worldview, on the other.
At the heart of the anthropological technique is anthropometry, or the measurement of the size of the human body. The need for a quantitative characteristic arises from the fact that all sizes exhibit continuous variability, and, as a rule, the limits of fluctuations in the sizes of one group of people go beyond the fluctuations of another. This phenomenon, called "transgressive variability", obviously leads to the need for numerical definitions. According to the object that serves as the subject of measurement, there are somatometry (actual anthropometry), or the measurement of a living person, osteometry - the measurement of the bones of the skeleton, craniometry - the measurement of the skull.
In the broad sense of the word, anthropometry includes anthropometry. i.e., a technique for “descriptive” or “qualitative” characterization of the shape of body parts, head, hair, facial features, pigmentation of the skin, hair, iris, and a number of other features. In anthropology, certain measurement techniques have been developed in detail, which must be observed with complete accuracy, without which the results of research are unreliable in themselves and incomparable with the measurements of other researchers. In order to achieve the most accurate definitions of “descriptive” or “qualitative” features, various scales have been widely used in anthropology, for example, scale sets of skin color, eyes, hair, standards in the form of models of lips, nose, eye area, auricle, etc. The main goal of developing and using scales and standards is to maintain a single (“worldwide”) scale for scoring those features that cannot be directly measured. The foundations of modern anthropological methods were laid by the works of the famous French anthropologist, anatomist and surgeon Paul Broca (1824--1880), who in the 60-70s of the last century developed detailed programs for anthropological research, proposed a number of devices and instruments for measuring the human body , compiled tables for determining pigmentation, etc.
This technique received a significant improvement and expansion in the works of Rudolf Martin (1864-1925). His three-volume manual "Textbook of Anthropology in a Systematic Presentation" gives a detailed presentation of the methods of anthropometric and anthroposcopic research and a summary of digital data on variations in individual somatological, osteological and craniological features. Martin's anthropological methodology, with various modifications, has received the widest recognition and application, as well as various basic anthropometric tools improved by him. Martin's metal rod composite anthropometer is used to determine the height and proportions of the body; to measure the head and face, as well as in craniometric studies, sliding and thick compasses are also used, also of the Martin system.
When measuring the angles on the skull, an attached Mollison goniometer is used, mounted on the leg of a sliding compass. There is a significant set of special tools: tripods for strengthening the skulls, a mandibulometer for measuring the lower jaw, compasses for measuring depth dimensions, boards for measuring long bones, etc.
To obtain reliable results in anthropological research, a number of general and special conditions must be observed. The most important of them is strict adherence to established measurement methods and accepted instructions. Even a slight deviation from the definition of one or another anthropometric point or a violation in the installation of the measured is enough for the results obtained to be incomparable with others.
It would seem that the definition of such a feature, which is simple in terms of measurement technique, as the length of the body, does not require special unification. However, experience has shown that measurements of the same subject give different figures depending on whether the examination was carried out in the morning or in the evening, whether the person being measured stood in a tense position or at ease, and for other reasons.
All these methods of anthropological research are the subject of a special course in anthropology - anthropometry. Methods of variational-statistical processing of measurement materials have been widely used in anthropology; using these methods, the most representative, i.e., the value of the trait most often found in the group under study, the range of variations, the statistical reality of differences between groups, the degree of their proximity to each other, etc. are determined. In anthropometry, various methods of reproducing an object or elements are used its structure, i.e. its size and shape. These are the methods of graphic reproduction of the contours of the body, the skull; special methods of anthropological photography; plastic reproduction of the form by making casts; obtaining prints of the skin relief, preparing blood smears and a number of other methods.
Based on the philosophy of dialectical and historical materialism, anthropology rejects the idealistic opposition of man to nature. “Be that as it may, when studying comparative physiology,” F. Engels wrote to K. Marx on July 14, 1858, “one begins to feel the greatest contempt for the idealistic exaltation of man over all other beasts. At every step you stumble upon the complete coincidence of the structure of man with the structure of other mammals; in general terms, this coincidence is seen in all vertebrates and even - in a more hidden form - in insects, crustaceans, worms, etc.” At the same time, advanced anthropology equally resolutely rejects the mechanistic identification of man and animals. Anthropology can correctly reflect the laws in human development only if it is guided by the idea of the qualitative originality of man, of the inadmissibility of transferring biological laws into human society.
1. THE CONCEPT OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is a field of knowledge, the subject of which is a person. The present time is characterized ambiguous understanding of content anthropology: 1) as a general science of man, combining the knowledge of various natural sciences and the humanities; 2) as a science that studies the biological diversity of man. Actually biological anthropology is engaged in the study of historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features).
Subject study biological(or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. A task biological anthropology - the identification and scientific description of the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological traits and systems of these (anthropological) traits, as well as the identification of the reasons for this diversity.
The levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.
Physical Anthropology has several main sections - areas of study of human biology. With a high degree of conventionality, we can talk about the existence of anthropology historical(explores the history and prehistory of human diversity) and geographical anthropology (explores the geographical variability of man).
As an independent scientific discipline, physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, the first scientific anthropological societies were established and the first special anthropological works began to be published. Among the founders of scientific anthropology are outstanding scientists of their time: P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin and others.
The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and particular anthropological methods, the formation of specific terminology and the principles of research themselves, the accumulation and systematization of materials relating to issues of origin, ethnic history, racial diversity of man as a biological species.
Russian anthropological science by the beginning of the 20th century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.
2. ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA
Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.
The official year of the "birth" of anthropology in Russia is 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanova(1834-1896) the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers was organized (later renamed the Society of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography Lovers - OLEAE). origins Anthropological research in Russia is associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th-19th centuries.
One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792-1876) is also known as one of the greatest anthropologists of his time, as an organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work "On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes" (1822), a view is developed about the origin of mankind from a common "root", that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitats. .
The works of N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much for his work in this area as for his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other regions of the South Pacific.
The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. 19th century called the "Bogdanov period". Professor of Moscow University A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural Science Lovers.
The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The work program of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of a person and his culture.
D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.
D. Anuchin's first major work (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.
3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF THE DISCIPLINE "ANTHROPOLOGY"
common goal Anthropology can be formulated as the study of the origin and historical existence of man.
Anthropological knowledge, of course, is necessary for students of psychological and pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They make it possible to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of a person and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish a person from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his being, etc.
The task of discipline- trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; to study the polymorphism of human types, due to sex, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in a particular cultural system.
Upon completion of the course, students must master the basic concepts of anthropology, understand its place in the system of sciences and practice; to study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the relationship and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; know the basics of constitutional and age anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; to master the concepts of racegenesis, ethnogenesis and to know the genetic problems of modern human populations; to know the basic needs, interests and values of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the system "man - personality - individuality" in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors, must be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.
4. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology physical is a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the variety of its forms.
The diversity of man in time and space is made up of manifestations of a large number of very different features and characteristics. Anthropological sign- this is any feature that has a specific state (variant), according to which the similarity or difference between individuals is found.
Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of signs, morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual - population level.
The tasks of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern man and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.
Research methods:
a) morphological;
b) genetic (especially population genetics);
in) demographic (connection of demography with population genetics);
G) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);
e) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);
e) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and the family);
and) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all sections of anthropology).
Anthropology explores the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the circle of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms - unambiguously to the field of biology.
Also historically, the division of physical anthropology into three relatively independent areas of study:
- anthropogenesis(from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is the morphology of man, considered in time, measured by the geological scale;
- racial science and ethnic Anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. In essence, this is the same morphology, but considered on the scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by man;
- proper morphology, studying variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.
5. POPULATION AND ITS TYPES
Under population(literally - population) is understood as an isolated set of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.
According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species that inhabits a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group for a large number of generations is isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).
Basic population criteria- this is:
Unity of habitat or geographical location (range);
The unity of the origin of the group;
The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);
Free interbreeding within the group and observance of the principle of panmixia, i.e., the equiprobability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (the absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).
The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for the self-reproduction of the group.
All of these biological definitions are equally fair in relation to humans. But since anthropology has a twofold orientation - biological and historical, two important consequences can be deduced from the presented formulations:
The consequence is biological: individuals belonging to the population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity with each other than with individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and occupied territory, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;
The consequence is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the "fate" of a separate human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still not developed hierarchical structure, being subdivided into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time entering into larger population systems (including ethnoterritorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .
6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES
Anthropogenesis(from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origin of man, the process of his development.
The complex of approaches to the study of the past of mankind includes:
1) biological sciences:
Human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;
Primatology - paleontology of primates;
Paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;
General biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.
2) physical sciences:
Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;
Taphonomy (science of the burial of fossils);
Dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;
3) Social sciencies:
Archeology - archeology of the Paleolithic, archeology of later times;
Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;
Psychology.
The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two - evolutionist theories(derived from the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism(derived from the Bible).
For about a century and a half, discussions between the supporters of these two different theories in biology and natural science have not subsided.
According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the detachment of modern primates is as follows:
1) suborder of semi-monkeys: sections of lemuromorphs, lorymorphs, tarsiimorphs;
2) suborder of anthropoids:
a) section of broad-nosed monkeys: family of marmosets and capuchinids;
b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:
Superfamily cercopithecoids, family marmosetiformes (lower narrow-nosed): subfamily marmosets and thin-bodied;
Hominoid superfamily (higher narrow-nosed):
Family gibbon-like (gibbons, siamangs);
The pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest human relatives;
Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.
7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1
At present, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: dryopithecus - ramapithecus - australopithecine - skillful man - erectus man - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropist) - neoanthrope (this is already a man of the modern type, homo sapiens).
Dryopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and died out about 8 million years ago, lived in tropical forests. These are early great apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and fed on their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was ramapithecus(Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). Ramapithecus are thought to have appeared 14 million years ago and died out about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from fragments of the jaw found in the Sivalik mountains in India. Whether these creatures were upright, it is not yet possible to establish.
australopithecines, inhabiting Africa 1.5-5.5 million years ago, were the link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecus did not have such natural defense organs as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and was inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as tools for defense and attack allowed Australopithecus to defend itself from enemies.
In the 60-70s. 20th century in Africa, the remains of creatures were found, the volume of the cranial cavity of which was 650 cm 3 (significantly less than that of a person). In the immediate vicinity of the find site, the most primitive pebble tools were found. Scientists have suggested that this creature can be assigned to the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - skillful person, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found, dating back 2-1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired a significant resemblance to Homo erectus.
One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erectus(Homo erektus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed approximately from 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.
The most ancient people have similar features: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, there is an supraorbital ridge on a low sloping forehead, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies within 800-1400 cm 3. Along with obtaining plant food, pithecanthropes were engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in the places of their life of the bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffaloes.
8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2
Ancient people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals(according to the place of their first discovery in the Neander river valley, Germany).
Neanderthals lived during the ice age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of Europe that has undergone icing, testifies to their significant progress compared to the most ancient people: ancient people knew how not only to maintain, but also to make fire, they already knew speech, their volume brain is equal to the brain volume of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in shape and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.
The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: care for the wounded or sick. Burials are found among Neanderthals for the first time.
Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality of children and adults, and better overcome the difficult conditions of existence, won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals was becoming stronger.
The emergence of people of modern physical type (Homo sapiens), that replaced the ancient people, happened relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.
Fossil people of the modern type possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries have.
9. EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
An important and still unresolved issue in science is the coordination of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to harmonize the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living matter and further through the gradual development of the simplest unicellular organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into a person in whom there is not only biological, but also spiritual life, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics, which is so universal that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), which is valid in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?
So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The existence of both universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.
At first glance, it is possible and natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is removed by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite enough to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious circumstance that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of a large amount of thermal solar energy into the terrestrial biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the terrestrial biosphere, and about such a global most complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work on the self-emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms, which are still unknown to science.
10. BACKGROUND OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM
Among the original premises of the doctrine evolutionism there are the following:
1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate matter to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;
2) spontaneous generation of the living in the inanimate. - Nothing confirmed;
3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. - Nothing confirmed;
4) unicellular organisms gradually evolved into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;
5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);
6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the "general law of evolution";
7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered as sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);
8) geological processes are interpreted in terms of very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). - Highly debatable;
9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of fossil rows.
Relevant counter-premises of the doctrine creationism are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent and factual explanation:
1) the whole Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;
2) God created, according to a reasonable plan, both unicellular and multicellular organisms, and in general all types of flora and fauna organisms, as well as the crown of creation - man;
3) the creation of living beings happened once, because they can continue to reproduce themselves;
4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;
5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;
6) geological processes are interpreted in terms of short time periods (catastrophe theory);
7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.
The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in worldview premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.
11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS
Under general the constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its "total" property to react in a certain way to environmental influences, without violating the connection of individual features of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all the individual characteristics of the subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.
Under private the constitution is understood as separate morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.
Constitutional features are considered as a complex, i.e., they are characterized by functional unity. This set should include:
Morphological characteristics of the organism (physique);
Physiological indicators;
Mental properties of personality.
In anthropology, private morphological constitutions are most developed.
The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manuvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Stefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Readers, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.
Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:
Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);
Functional diagrams, in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the body.
12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAK
E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.
It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most of the later classifications. The types distinguished by him under other names can be recognized in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction are different. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - a preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), pyknic and athletic.
Similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.
Its fundamental difference from the scheme of E. Kretschmer is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The scheme is built on two coordinates of physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of development of muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal region and back. V. Bunak's scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account in it.
The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the features of the main types. They were singled out by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the severity of the features underlying the scheme is not quite distinct and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author singled out two more body types as indefinite, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.
13. V. DERYABIN'S CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME
Having analyzed the entire range of existing constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than was considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:
With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of \u200b\u200bwhat body types are. Proceeding from this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those features or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of the constitutional schemes we have considered;
The a posteriori approach presupposes not a simple imposition of the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of a fixed scale of variability, taking into account its laws. With this approach, theoretically, it will be better to take into account the objective patterns of morphological and functional relationships and the correlation of signs. The subjectivity of typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.
Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:
The first axis describes the variability of the overall dimensions of the body (overall dimensions of the skeleton) along the macro- and microsomia coordinates. One of its poles is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);
The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the form of the locomotor apparatus) and varies from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscular component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (reverse ratio of components);
The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different segments of the body and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposity (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposity (strong fat deposition). "Constitutional space" is open from all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6-7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12-13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. According to these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is found.
14. ONTOGENESIS
Ontogenesis(from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or life cycle - one of the key biological concepts. This is life before birth and after it, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should by no means be presented as a simple increase in size. The biological development of a person is a complex morphogenetic event, it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, shaping of tissues, organs and their systems.
The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four major stages:
1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;
2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;
3) determination and differentiation of cells; determined cells are those that "choose" a program of further development. In the process of this development, cells are specialized to perform certain functions, i.e., they are differentiated into cell types;
4) morphogenesis - the end result of the mentioned processes is the formation of cell systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.
Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to a change in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, in the whole organism. Even if there are no obvious quantitative changes (actual growth), qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (the shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. The "appearance" of all types of variability of human biological characteristics, including those that were discussed earlier, is associated with the transformations that occur in the process of ontogenesis.
The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.
15. FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT
The ontogenetic development of a person can be characterized by a number of common features:
Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not infinite, it follows the so-called limited type. The final values of each trait are genetically determined, i.e., there is a reaction rate;
Graduality and irreversibility; the continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those features of the structure that have already manifested themselves in the previous stages;
Cyclicity; although ontogeny is a continuous process, the rate of development (the rate of change in traits) can vary significantly over time. In humans, there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. There is a cyclicality associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight - in the fall), as well as daily and a number of others;
Heterochrony, or diversity of time (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different systems of the body and different signs within the same system. Naturally, the most important, vital systems mature at the first stages of ontogenesis;
Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take development processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is kept by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the actual genetic control, implemented at the level of the body due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);
Sexual dimorphism is the clearest characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Let us remind once again that the differences caused by the "sex factor" are so significant that ignoring them in research practice levels out the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogeny is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of the ontogenetic development of an individual is unique.
16. STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT
The process of ontogenetic development can be logically divided into two stages:
The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment a zygote is formed as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;
Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.
The maximum activation of body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21-25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4-5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5-8 years, a weak half-height jump is sometimes noted. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13-15 years old in boys, there is a distinct acceleration of growth - a growth spurt: the growth rate of body length is about 8-10 cm per year for boys and 7-9 cm per year for girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.
The maximum growth rate of the fetus is typical for the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is noted more often at the 34th week.
The first two months of intrauterine development is the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of "regionalization" and histogenesis (differentiation of cells with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to the differential growth of cells and cellular migrations, parts of the body acquire a certain outline, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - actively goes up to the adult state and continues until old age. But its main results are already visible at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.
By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the growth rate of the fetus slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - during the period when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week-old fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, growth retardation mechanisms contribute to successful childbirth, but this does not always happen. The weight and dimensions of the body of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother's body.
Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the growth rate of body length increases again, especially in a genetically large child.
Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16-17 years and in boys aged 18-19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years, there is a decrease in body length.
17. PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS
The oldest periodizations of ontogeny date back to antiquity:
Pythagoras(VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20-40 years), autumn (40-60 years) and winter (60-80 years). These periods correspond to the formation, youth, the prime of life and their extinction. Hippocrates(V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.
Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:
The younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years) and children (6-15 years);
The flowering generation is young (16-30 years old), mature (30-45 years old) and elderly (45-60 years old);
The fading generation is old (61-75 years old) and long-lived (75-100 years old and older).
A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner(1854-1932), who divided postnatal ontogeny into seven stages:
Infancy (from birth to 9 months);
Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);
Late childhood (from 8 to 13-14 years old);
Youthful age (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);
Maturity (41-50 years);
Old age (50-70 years);
Honorable old age (over 70 years).
Pedagogy often uses the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-preschool age (1-3 years), preschool age (3-7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11-12 years), secondary school age (up to 15 years old) and senior school age (up to 17-18 years old). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Gayer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.
The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epoch-making changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.
For at least the last one and a half centuries, up to the last 2-4 decades, a process of epoch-making acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation grew larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and spread to many populations of modern man (although not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes was surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.
Approximately from the second half of the XX century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades, we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deseleration).
18. DISCONNECTION
Under the term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarities in a set of certain hereditary biological traits (racial traits). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a certain geographical area and natural environment.
Race is a purely biological concept, as are the signs themselves, according to which racial classification is carried out.
Classic racial signs include appearance features - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, the structure of the face as a whole, the shape of the head. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial features. As auxiliary signs of body structure are used - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the signs of the structure of the body are much more variable within any group than the signs of the structure of the head and, moreover, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial science as an independent source.
The most important properties of racial traits:
Signs of physical structure;
Traits that are inherited;
Characters, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;
Signs associated with a certain area - distribution zone;
Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.
The unification of people on the basis of a common self-consciousness, self-determination is called ethnos(ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.
Determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.
A nation unites people already absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.
19. RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS
There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the features underlying them. A variety of racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:
Created on the basis of a limited set of features;
Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.
Many of the early systems belong to the first version of the classifications. These are the schemes: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races according to skin color;
P. Topinara (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;
A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in the combination of chronological features. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races, created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, a small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best, they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. At the same time, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can randomly approach each other.
Most of the racial schemes belong to the second version of the classifications. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical position of the races. First, the main ones (the so-called large races, or races of the first order) are singled out, occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characters, small races (or races of the second order) are distinguished. Sometimes races of lower levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called the anthropological type).
Existing open type racial classifications can be divided into two groups:
1) schemes that distinguish a small number of basic types (large races);
2) schemes that distinguish a large number of basic types.
In the schemes of the 1st group, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in the schemes of the 2nd group, their number is 6-8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems, several options are always repeated, and an increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.
In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.
20. EQUATORIAL BIG RACE
The Equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin coloration, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low average nose, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large oral fissure, and thick lips. Prior to the era of European colonization, the habitat of the representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:
1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high bridge of the nose, average cheekbone diameter, above average height and tall;
2) veddoid: poor development of hairline, less wide nose, smaller head and face, smaller stature;
3) Melanesian (including Negritos types), unlike the two previous ones, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in the abundant development of the tertiary hairline, strongly protruding superciliary ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in composition the Melanesian race is much more motley than the Negroid;
4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Vedoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) by a very pronounced curly hair; it differs from the Melanesian in greater thickness of the lips, lower nose bridge and flatter bridge of the nose, somewhat higher orbits of the eyes, little protruding brow ridges, and, in general, higher stature;
5) the Negril (Central African) race differs from the Negroid not only in its very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of the tertiary hairline, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;
6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid not only in its very short stature, but also in its lighter skin, narrower nose, flatter face, very flattened nose bridge, small face size and steatopygia (deposition of fat in the gluteal region).
21. EURASIAN BIG RACE
The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by a light or swarthy skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant beard and mustache growth, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, high nose bridge, sagittal nostrils, a small oral fissure, thin lips.
Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, North India. The Caucasoid race is subdivided into a number of minor races:
1) Atlanto-Baltic: fair skin, fair hair and eyes, long nose, tall stature;
2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, somewhat smaller growth;
3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloration of hair and eyes, swarthy skin, wavy hair, even more elongated nose than in previous races, somewhat more convex bridge of the nose, very narrow face;
4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, bulging nose, very abundant development of tertiary hairline, relatively short and very wide face, tall;
5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and medium height.
22. ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE
The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) major race is distinguished by swarthy or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, little or very little beard and mustache growth, average nose width, low or medium nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in the American, average thickness of the lips, flattening of the face, strong protrusion of the cheekbones, large face size, the presence of epicanthus.
The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is subdivided into several minor races:
1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very little beard growth and thin lips, large size and strong flattening of the face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.
The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, poor beard growth, low nose, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;
2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, less frequency of the epicanthus, somewhat smaller zygomatic width, narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, high nose bridge and more protruding nose, thick lips;
3) the Far Eastern race, compared with the North Asian, is characterized by coarser hair, dark skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. She is characterized by a high skull height, but a small face;
4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even sharper expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian - greater swarthyness, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and smaller stature;
5) the American race, varying greatly in many characteristics, is on the whole closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. So, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by the large size of the face and its noticeably less flattening.
23. INTERMEDIATE RACES
Races intermediate between the three major races:
- Ethiopian (East African) the race occupies a middle position between the equatorial and Eurasian large races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is more often curly, but less spirally curled than in Negroes. The growth of the beard is weak or medium, the lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. So, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, growth is above average, an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;
- South Indian the (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but differs in a straighter form of hair and a somewhat shorter stature; the face is slightly smaller and slightly wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate position between the Veddoid and the Indo-Mediterranean races;
- Ural the race, in many ways, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; a concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;
- South Siberian The (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asiatic American major races. A significant percentage of mixed races. However, with a general unsharp expression of Mongolian features, this race has very large face sizes, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose, lips of medium thickness are characteristic;
- Polynesian the race occupies a neutral position according to many systematic features; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hairline, moderately protruding nose, lips somewhat thicker than those of Europeans; rather strongly protruding cheekbones; very tall, large face, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, much smaller than that of Negroes, and larger than that of Europeans; Kuril The (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the large races are more pronounced in it. In terms of a very strong development of the hairline, it occupies one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, a shallow canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; low growth.
24. HEREDITY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is a source of human diversity, because it is precisely this biology that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.
The external variability of a person is a product of society: gender and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to "gentility", "property" or "abilities".
The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype ("program" of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments of its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in pedagogical practice. They boil down to statements like: a) genes determine the phenotype; b) genes determine the limits and in) genes determine predispositions.
It is erroneous to say that genes determine the phenotype, i.e., that the phenotype of an organism can be precisely determined from the genotype. It is upbringing, place and nature of work, social experience that determine the differences in phenotypes. It is also wrong to say that genes determine the limits of a person(organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of "empty cells": the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can act only as "depleted" or "enriched" from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.
The provision that genotypes determine the predispositions of an organism(personality), is also quite erroneous. The idea of predisposition (for example, to be overweight or thin) suggests that the tendency is manifested under normal conditions. In relation to humans, "normal environmental conditions" look extremely vague, and even the average values for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.
25. THE THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR
There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.
Under physiological division is understood as the natural distribution of types of labor among the population according to sex and age. The expressions "women's work", "men's work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labour" (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).
Technological the division of labor is inherently infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate components due to the requirements of the product manufacturing technology.
Division of human labor means the division of labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental work (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Knowledge work (development of technologies, education, training of workers and their upbringing) is an ever-expanding sphere.
public the division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between the social groups of society. To which group and how this or that “share” of life falls in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.
Term "major division of labor" first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic by labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating the forces, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers in itself, enters the sphere of possession, disposal and use of individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of the possession of the past labor of the whole society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the capacity for it also appears as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.
26. SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
The initial basic human need, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.
Security and safety- the next in ascending importance basic human need. Here and concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is no concern for personal security, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would "bring into order" the world and determine our place in it.
Need for belonging(to this or that community), involvement and affection - the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This is love, and sympathy, and friendship, and other forms of proper human communication, personal intimacy; it is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, victory. The need for attachment and belonging is the other side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of the dissatisfaction of this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication-community (belonging, belonging, attachment) is very important for a fulfilling life.
The need for respect and self-respect is another basic human need. A person needs to be appreciated - for skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., to be seen and recognized for his achievements, successes, merits. Here considerations of prestige, reputation and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is still not enough - it is important to respect oneself, to have a sense of one's own dignity, to believe in one's uniqueness, indispensability, to feel that one is engaged in a necessary and useful business. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of the dissatisfaction of this need.
Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization- the last, final, according to A. Maslow, the basic human need. However, it is final only in terms of classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, a truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become all that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. Man's work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the considered need.
27. SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS
In the very wide context synonymous with the word "culture" is "civilization". AT narrow sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, it is a way of life, thoughts, actions, a system of values and norms that is characteristic of a given society, a person. Culture unites people in integrity, society.
It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and motives that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.
Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented, not established, but arise gradually from the daily life and social practice of people.
Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value-based development of reality. The vigorous activity of a person, society to meet their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities, without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in the mental mentality.
The foundation of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.
The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture retains only what corresponds to its logic, mentality. New cultural acquisitions - both their own and those of others - national culture always strives to give a national flavor. Culture actively resists alien elements. Relatively painlessly updating the peripheral, secondary elements, the culture shows a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.
Any culture is capable of self-development. This explains the diversity of national cultures, national identity.
28. CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY
The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society, high culture (elitist) and folk culture (folklore) can be distinguished. The development of mass media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in terms of meaning and art, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, is capable of crowding out both high and folk culture.
The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of the culture of society, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.
According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:
Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, possession of things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);
Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, avoidance of real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values of the national culture are being supplanted or replaced by samples of mass culture, oriented towards achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and light perception.
Many Russians, and especially young ones, are characterized by the absence of ethno-cultural or national self-identification, they cease to perceive themselves as Russians, lose their Russianness. The socialization of young people takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case, non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of westernized values into the youth environment.
29. SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at work with various social, gender and age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.
In the context of changing many ideas about the nature of social assistance to the population, great demands began to be made both on the content of the practice of social work and on the training of professional workers for the social sphere. Of great importance is knowledge in those areas that allow a specialist to consider the content of social work through its functions.
A social worker needs knowledge of an integration socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical direction, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.
Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, and social work. This series includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation and other sciences.
The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationship with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to the probabilistic laws of development, needs an integrated approach in the study and analysis of all spheres of human life.
The training of specialists in the field of social work is impossible without broad social education, the correct prioritization of universal values, scientific justification of the concept of social work, taking into account the relationship between biological and social in a person, without scientific understanding and assessment of the nature of socialization, studying its constituent components, the structure and relationships of an integral system .
30. BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY
Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized in the phenotype under the influence and in interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of features of physique and other features that we have considered. Each person has a composition of biologically active substances and compounds peculiar only to him - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is the biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.
The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of the biochemical status of a person and the role of this special side of variability in the processes of the body's vital activity in normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem is largely due to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country - to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences, and even mood.
Based on the data of numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:
The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types of a person is substantiated (relatively a small number of endocrine formula models encountered in comparison with their possible number);
Types of the endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;
The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize the extreme variants of hormonal secretion;
These variants are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);
Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.
31. MENTAL PECULIARITIES ACCORDING TO E. KRETSCHMER
According to the statements of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a round figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.
A directly opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal disturbances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.
The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another "edge" are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic traits of character or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).
According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymics. They, as it were, in a latent and smoothed form, show the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.
These people are sociable, psychologically open, cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, show the opposite complex of mental traits and are called schizotimics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizothymics are unsociable, closed, self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to inner experiences. People of an athletic constitution are iksotimics, they are unhurried, calm, not very eager to communicate, but they do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average health.
Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: the use of clinic orderlies as the "norm" does not at all reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) links between mental characteristics and physique signs were not found.
32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON
Sufficiently rigid connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was done on a different methodological level and deserves more confidence. When describing temperament, the author used not a discrete type, but components, similar to how it was done in his constitutional system: 50 signs were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he singled out three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 signs . Each attribute was evaluated on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 attributes determined the entire component (an analogy with the constitutional system is evident here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia. After examining 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and "mental" traits showed a weak relationship, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.
People with viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and in many respects - psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, they have an endomorphic constitutional type.
Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a penchant for adventure. With sufficient sociability, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant association of somatotonic temperament with mesomorphic constitutional type.
Continuing the trend towards a decrease in sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is distinguished by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and stiffness in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.
33. CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES
Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.
Morphological signs are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has been studied perhaps the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with the hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the type of inheritance of most of these traits is not exactly known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.
Of all the constitutional features, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie foods, but the trend of this relationship between nutritional level and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a regularity. Food availability and genetics are two different things.
Physiological signs, apparently, are somewhat weaker genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs that are combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them as a whole. Obviously, some of them are inherited with the help of one gene, others are characterized by polygenic heredity. Some are little dependent on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, such as heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the factor of heredity will represent the role of a rather determining probabilistic force. On the example of the heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to a frequent heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. The other person under these conditions will be less prone to palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.
The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:
Base neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;
- psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broadest sense of the word);
- proper psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, etc. - to the greatest extent depends on the upbringing, living conditions, attitude towards the person of the people around him.
34. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical development is understood as "a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength."
P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional concept, although applicable in practice. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - that is, signs that determine the "structural and mechanical properties" of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Brock index and Pignet index), as well as weight and height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the "ideal" weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to some idea of ideal balance of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas work only for a part of people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been applied. The standards of physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and are regularly updated.
The assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are estimates of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account the indicator of biological age, etc.
Assessing the complex of constitutional features, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is no direct "fatal" relationship between body type and a certain disease and cannot be.
35. ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE
To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.
So, asthenic people are prone to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a "low supply of physical strength", but most likely this is simply due to the lower thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more prone to digestive system disorders - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, the greater risk of neurosis and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.
The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic type, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, stroke, myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of getting cancer.
The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less explored. It is possible that people of a muscular type are more prone to stress and related diseases.
An essential conclusion from the studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about "bad" or "good" versions of it. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only in certain environmental conditions. So, the probability of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than that of an asthenic in New Guinea. And an asthenic working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic working as a school teacher. Asthenic will feel at the hearth of a steel plant or in a greenhouse much better than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show the best results in sports or working as a loader.
36. THE THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION OF TARD
The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by a person) of values and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is the principle that forms the basis of the process of socialization, and it relies both on physiological needs and the desires of people arising from them, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).
Tarde recognized the relationship "teacher - student" as a typical social relationship. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most common personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities, regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles proceeds in the form of imitation. General values and norms are mastered by the individual in the process of communication with "significant others", as a result of which normative standards are included in the structure of the individual's needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of the social system. The socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by Z. Freud, put into action with the help of reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (displacement) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the learner are based on feelings of love and respect (to the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).
Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the targeted influence of the educator on the educated, focused on the formation of the desired traits in him.
37. LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION
There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically verified, as evidenced by I. Kohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The premoral level is typical for the relationship between children and parents based on the external dyad "suffering - pleasure", the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; the moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg proposes to distinguish seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of a person's system of morality. Many people in their development do not reach the moral level. In this regard, the term "moral pragmatism" appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people's business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of "situational morality", the motto of which is: "Moral is what is useful in a given situation."
In childhood, the child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, authorities ("significant others") play an important role.
The teenager already feels his individuality, as a result of which he strives "to be like everyone else, but better than everyone else." The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, the desire to stand out in a group, not differing in principle from everyone else. A teenager is very normative, but in his environment.
Youth is already characterized by the desire "to be different from everyone else." There is a clear scale of values that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at all costs often leads to nonconformity, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, forms its own subculture, language, tastes, fashions.
The stage of true adulthood, social maturity is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through the role structure and value system, adjusted by culture. Significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - relatives, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.
38. THE THEORY OF VIOLENCE
The focus of the theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. We note at least four areas of research and explanation of human aggressiveness:
- ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of the freedom of the individual without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called "lawlessness" - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;
- Freudian, Neo-Freudian and Existentialism argue that the aggressiveness of a person is the result of the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggressiveness is caused by social causes (Freudianism takes it out of the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;
- interactionism sees the cause of people's aggressiveness in a "conflict of interest", incompatibility of goals;
Representatives cognitivism believe that the aggressiveness of a person is the result of "cognitive dissonance", i.e., inconsistencies in the cognitive sphere of the subject. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.
Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggression, more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, in its own way, is trying to explain human genetics.
39. DEVIANT AND DELICENT BEHAVIOR
There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. When a person violates the norms, rules of conduct, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant(deviant) or (next stage of development) delinquent(criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from missing school classes (deviant behavior), to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, then he committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered as offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusal to drink alcohol under certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of the accepted norm of behavior.
The seriousness of the offense depends not only on the significance of the violated norm, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student walks out of the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought to the police can be forgiven even for a serious violation of the law, while a person who has already had a criminal record faces severe punishment for a small offense.
In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually deal with the category of offenders who break the law, as they are a threat to society. The more burglaries, the more people are afraid for their property; the more murders, the more we fear for our lives.
40. E. DURKHEIM'S THEORY OF ANOMY
Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes involving conscious choice.
An important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior is occupied by the theory of anomie (disregulation). E. Durkheim, investigating the causes of suicide, considered the main cause of the phenomenon, which he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms govern their behavior, people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes, life experience is of little help. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his main idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted.
The growth of social disorganization is not necessarily associated with an economic crisis, inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Please note: the crime rate is always higher where there is a high migration of the population. The theory of anomie was developed in the works of other sociologists. In particular, ideas were formulated about "social hoops", i.e., the level of social (settlement) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.
41. THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR
Structural tension theory explains many offenses as a disappointment of the individual. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel his inferiority and can use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.
The idea of social investment is simple and to a certain extent connected with the tension theory. The more effort a person expended to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work, and much more), the more he risks losing in case of violation of laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degraded people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, then he steals, as a rule, huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.
Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. This conformity helps to maintain appreciation and respect for us, protects our reputation.
The theory of stigma, or labeling,-
this is the ability of influential groups of society to brand deviants to some social or national groups: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.
Supporters of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows you to label a person as a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).
The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.
42. CONTROL IN SOCIETY
Any society for the purpose of self-preservation establishes certain norms, rules of conduct and appropriate control over their implementation.
There are three main forms of control:
Isolation - excommunication from society of hardened criminals, up to the death penalty;
Isolation - restriction of contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;
Rehabilitation - preparation for the return to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile delinquents. Control can be formal or informal.
System formal control- organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of rigidity: the tax inspectorate and the tax police, the police and OMON, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal law, etc.
Informal control- this is the unofficial social pressure of others, the press. Possible punishment through criticism, ostracism; threat of physical violence.
Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that prescribe the fulfillment by each person of the requirements and duties necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.
In modern society, of course, the rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the whole society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of conduct is formed, group control is applied by state authorities on behalf of the whole society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the requirements of the laws, society resorts to coercion.
The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality, norms-rules - by laws, law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. The norm-expectation can turn into the norm-rule, and vice versa.
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