About 2 million years ago, the shortest period in the history of the Earth began - the Quaternary, or anthropogenic, period. Geologists, in turn, divide the Quaternary period into the Pleistocene and Holocene. The Holocene covers the last 10,000 years of Earth's history, which is why it is often called modern time.
The Quaternary, or anthropogenic, period is characterized by a strong climate cooling, which left its mark on both the terrain and biological forms, which distinguishes it from previous geological eras.
It was during the Anthropocene that the cooling process, which began at the end of the Tertiary period, continued with increased intensity. As the temperature dropped, snowfields and glaciers formed in elevated areas, which did not have time to melt in the summer. Under their own weight, they slid from the mountains into the valleys, and over time, large areas of the northern and southern hemispheres were under ice. At some points, over 45 million square kilometers of land were covered with ice. At this time in Europe, glaciation reached southern England, Holland, the Harz and the Carpathians, and in Central Russia up to 44 degrees north latitude along the Don and Dnieper valleys. In North America, ice fields extended to 40 degrees north latitude, where the cities of St. Louis and Philadelphia are now located.
In the Quaternary period, glaciations alternated with interglacial periods, when the ice retreated and a temperate climate temporarily reigned on the earth. Research has shown that over the last million years there have been at least six glacial and interglacial periods. But at the same time, the Quaternary period as a whole was colder than previous geological eras. But it was the cooling that led to the formation of clearly separate climate zones on the planet, passing through all continents: Arctic, temperate and tropical. At the same time, the boundaries of individual climate zones were mobile and depended on the advance to the south or retreat to the north of glaciers.
In the intervals between glaciations, a humid and warm climate close to the modern one was established in most of Europe. During these interglacial eras, vast areas in the north and east of the continent were overgrown with deciduous forests or turned into impassable swamps. Increased precipitation sharply raised the water level in the rivers. Their erosion activity also increased as a result of isostatic mountain-building processes in the interior regions of the northern continents. Therefore, the Quaternary period is characterized by strong erosion of ancient sediments by rivers. During ice ages, mechanical weathering processes predominated. The valleys overflowed with gravel and other large debris. During interglacial periods, the vegetation cover was restored, protecting the soil from erosion and weathering. High-water rivers again cleared the gravel-filled valleys and deepened them even further. The climate also changed greatly in the southern regions, far from the glaciers. Thus, the Sahara during interglacial periods was a country rich in moisture and vegetation. According to climate fluctuations, fauna and flora migrated either south or north. Many heat-loving plants of the late Tertiary period nevertheless died out in the Quaternary period.
In the swamps, as well as along the banks of rivers and lakes, in old caves, we find a few objects belonging to various cultures of Stone Age people. Often, bones of killed animals, grain, snail shells and other materials are found next to them. All these finds allow us to reconstruct a picture of the world in which these people lived and imagine their way of life. Climatic shocks of the Pleistocene had a depressing effect on the flora and fauna of the northern continents. As the glaciers advanced, the climatic barrier to life moved south (sometimes dropping to 40 N latitude and below), so the vegetation also retreated south. These processes continued for tens of millions of years, and with each retreat of the ice, the forests returned to their original territories. True, in Europe and Western Asia, which were the scene of the most intense and frequent climatic changes, the return of vegetation was often blocked by mountain ranges or the Mediterranean Sea. As a result, many temperate plants of the Old World that appeared in the Tertiary period were condemned to extinction. Many European and Asian species of animals, directly or indirectly dependent on certain types of vegetation, were forced to share the deplorable fate of plants: emigrate to southern countries or die along with them.
The warm air current from the Atlantic Ocean, turned south by the glacial front of Central Europe, caused heavy precipitation and high humidity in those areas where today there are arid deserts; flora and fauna of the Mediterranean type flourished there.
Glaciation had a huge impact on the development of life, and it was with it that the rapid evolution of primates and the appearance of humans on the scene coincided with it. Due to the important role played by human activity during this period, the entire Quaternary period was also called the Anthropocene - that is, the “age of man.” Therefore, archaeological concepts are often used to divide the Anthropocene into parts: the European Pleistocene is usually called the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), and the Holocene is divided into the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
It is interesting to note that individual stages of human cultural development, such as the Paleolithic and others, did not develop simultaneously throughout the world. The Australian aborigines still live today, or until recently lived, in the ancient Stone Age, that is, in the Paleolithic. The rather highly developed peoples of Central and South America, in all likelihood, did not know how to process metals (and in any case did not know iron) and remained in the Neolithic until the 16th century, that is, until the beginning of Spanish colonization. Therefore, archaeologists cannot be guided by the age of geological layers when determining the cultural affiliation of traces of human activity - for this purpose, the age of the so-called “cultural layer” is determined.
The Cenozoic era, or as it is often called the Cenozoic, has lasted for 65.5 million years. It began after the extinction of many animal species at the end of the Cretaceous. Let us note that we still live in the Cenozoic today. The name translated from Greek means “new life”. The Cenozoic era includes the following periods: Tertiary and Quaternary. The first, in turn, consists of the Paleocene and Pliocene, and the second - the Pleistocene and Holocene. However, most often in the literature geologists do not use this division, since the evolutionary changes are very small.
In short, the development of life in the Cenozoic era reached its peak in the history of the Earth. This is especially true for marine, flying and terrestrial species. If you look from a geological point of view, it was during this period that our planet acquired its modern appearance. Thus, New Guinea and Australia now became independent, although they had previously been annexed to Gondwana. These two territories moved closer to Asia. Antarctica has taken its place and remains there to this day. The territories of North and South America were united, but nevertheless today they are divided into two separate continents. The Cenozoic era presentation is located below:
After the threat posed by large dinosaurs disappeared, the Cenozoic era became a time of prosperity for mammals. The first mammals coexisted quite peacefully with birds, common reptiles and invertebrates. Climate conditions became colder and drier as the continents separated from each other and assumed roughly their present-day positions. Some scientists believe that it was at this time that the Himalayas rose.
The presence of year-round grazing allowed entire herds of grazing animals to thrive along with now-extinct side branches of the evolutionary tree. Temperatures continued to decrease as the continent of Antarctica formed. The emergence of the homo sapiens lineage among mammals occurred in the last few minutes of this era (geologically speaking), along with the use of primitive tools, the making of fire and the invention of the wheel, while older species became extinct.
The Cenozoic era dates back to the Tertiary period. This name is a little outdated today, but at the moment it is the largest stage. This period ended 1.8 million years ago, when the Ice Age began (so far the last in the history of the Earth). The Italian Arduino gave this name to the stage. At first, he divided all periods of the Cenozoic era into numerical order, starting from primary to tertiary. After some time, the quaternary also entered here. Then, in 1828, the penultimate stage was well studied by the Scottish specialist Charles Lyell. Moreover, he contributed so much information that the tertiary stage had to be divided into four stages at once. In his teachings, he based his teachings on fossil mollusks, that is, on their population density. These creatures were chosen for good reason, since their appearance is reminiscent of modern species. He gave the eras Greek “names”: Eocene, Miocene, as well as the Ancient and New Pliocene. This distribution was well suited for Italy, but the division was not typical for other parts of the globe. Subsequently, no one resorted to the help of mollusks during research, and the eras suffered changes. Now, according to the new standard, the Tertiary period consists of the Paleogene and Neogene.
Let's briefly talk about each. The first lasted for 40 million years. It was during this period that life in the Cenozoic era became much brighter and richer. Many representatives of the fauna settled in territories previously occupied by dinosaurs. Some species have undergone changes during evolution. 24.6 million years ago the period came to an end due to the beginning of climate drying. It is divided into three eras, the names of which are no longer used today. 
Then the Cenozoic era moved into a new stage - the Neogene. Its duration was 22 million years. Its character is significantly different from its predecessor. During this period, the number of mammal species decreased, but at the same time they began to come into closer contact with each other. We also note that the climate continues to dry out, and the average air temperature is gradually dropping. Thus, 1.8 million years ago the Ice Age began. The Tertiary period is conventionally divided into Miocene and Pliocene.
The Cenozoic era becomes much more interesting during the Quaternary period, often called the Anthropocene. This is the final stage of the Cenozoic, which began 2.6 million years ago. In the era under consideration, this period is the shortest. First of all, it is characterized by the acquisition of a modern appearance of the terrain, and the most important thing is the appearance of man. By the way, it is difficult for paleontologists to examine the remains, since in this case it is impossible to determine age using isotopes. There is only one effective method - radiocarbon dating. Other methods can also be used, the foundation of which is the decay of short-lived isotopes. As you can see, for scientists the Quaternary period is the most specific. It, in turn, contains two eras: the Pleistocene and the Holocene. It’s interesting to know what the shape of the Earth was like when the Cenozoic era reigned. The presentation will tell you:
During the “reign” of the first, enormous glaciations reigned, but at the same time they changed cyclically with interglacials, when the air temperature was acceptable. Already at that time, the climate acquired a modern character, but this did not apply to animals at all. As an example, the extinction of the South American pampa. The reason for this phenomenon is frequent changes in climatic conditions; in some cases, animals were exterminated by ancient people. If we move completely to South America, we will note the disappearance from the Earth of the sloth Megatherium, the giant saber-toothed cat and the armadillo Dedicurus. Then we move to North America, where the fauna has also undergone changes. In particular, the tyrant birds disappeared. You may not know, but in ancient times camels lived overseas, but they later became extinct. Note the disappearance of the American horse, deer, bull and antelope. In Europe, mammoths, cave bears and lions, as well as woolly rhinoceroses, have disappeared. The misfortune also affected the fate of people, and to be precise, the Neanderthals. It was they who lost to the Cro-Magnons in the struggle for power. But it’s unknown how they disappeared from the planet: they were killed or they were eaten. 
We now move to the Holocene, which was a normal interglacial era, but characterized by a stable climate. During this period, the Cenozoic era lost many representatives of the fauna; in this case, primitive man did not calculate the strength. In the middle of the period, people began to competently use the resources provided, and in the process of evolution, civilization gained development. The Holocene marks the beginning of the technological development of mankind. There are no significant changes in the appearance of the animals. In the past period, the number of megatheriums, epiornis, dodos, and Steller's cows was only about a hundred individuals per species. However, in the Holocene era, these representatives completely ended their existence. Again, the fault is on the part of man.
As for the climate, it has become much warmer, thus today there is global warming. Scientists associate these changes with active industrial activity of people. As a result of rising temperatures, the Eurasian and North American glacier collapsed. Until recently, the Arctic was one whole, but at one point the ice cover slowly began to disintegrate. Numerous mountain ice sheets have been wiped off the face of the Earth. Today they can only be seen in Greenland and Antarctica, since these territories are located near the polar caps. In the 20th century, specialists originated a doctrine in the field of medicine called genetics. Perhaps in the near future they will be able to breed extinct animals that lived in the Pleistocene. Now we live just in the Hologen era.
The Cenozoic era has been studied by many researchers for many years. Most of them are on the INQUA staff. The main activity of this corporation is related to the study of the Quaternary period, including our time. The organization was founded in 1928. The press service provides a lot of information, and therefore it is not difficult to write an essay about the Cenozoic era. Starting from this time, a meeting of scientists is planned with a cyclic period of 4 years, and the locations of the seminars change each time. This once again suggests that the Cenozoic era is very popular among scientists. Russia is a member country of INQUA; it represents its commission in this organization. In our country it is headed by Yu.A. Lavrushin, who is a professor at the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The Cenozoic era has already been well studied with the help of world experts, especially when it comes to animals. After all, technological progress continues to move. Today, the organization devotes more and more time to the issue of preserving species of flora and fauna, in particular regarding deforestation. Although the designers created modern equipment, they were unable to invent cheap artificial paper.
A total of 18 congresses were held, the last one was held in the capital of Switzerland - Bern. Representatives from 75 countries gathered in the seminar hall in July 2011. Scientists themselves claim that it is most difficult for them to study the flora of the Cenozoic era. After all, this material is poorly preserved to this day, and therefore difficulties arise during analysis. But today computer models are being created that can be used to compile a whole report about the Cenozoic era.
Cenozoic or Cenozoic era- the current last era of the geological history of the Earth. The Cenozoic era continues today. It began 66 million years ago, immediately after, as a result of which all dinosaurs disappeared. It is unknown when the new era will begin. In order for the Cenozoic era to give way to a new era, significant changes must occur in the geological conditions of the planet. In order not to get confused in eras and periods, use for clarity.
Cenozoic periods
The Cenozoic is divided into three periods and seven eras (divisions).
1. or Paleogene period. Lasted from 66 million years ago to 23 million years ago. It is divided into three eras: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene.
2. or Neogene period. Lasted from 23 to 2.5 million years ago. It is divided into two eras: Miocene and Pliocene.
3. or Anthropocene. It began 2.5 million years ago and continues to this day. It is divided into two eras: Pleistocene and Holocene.
Life in the Cenozoic
Life in the new era after the mass extinction has changed dramatically. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction literally changed the face of the animal kingdom beyond recognition. If in the Mesozoic the rulers of the Earth were giant dinosaur dinosaurs, then in the Cenozoic mammals took their place. After a catastrophe that occurred 66 million years ago, many animals became extinct. The highest survival rate was found in warm-blooded mammals. This is due to the fact that as a result of global cooling due to the impact of a giant meteorite on the earth, all cold-blooded animals that depend on the ambient temperature simply froze.
Warm-blooded animals, who are able to maintain body temperature, were able to survive the disaster, and when all the consequences of the meteorite hitting the earth passed, they found themselves in a completely new world. All dinosaurs that occupied the main living niches became completely extinct. The only reptiles left are lizards, snakes, crocodiles and other small animals. This gave warm-blooded animals endless freedom to develop. Over 66 million years, warm-blooded animals have gained enormous diversity. In addition, small reptiles, fish, marine animals, birds, insects, and plants also received a wide variety. Also, at the end of the Cenozoic, a completely new form of life appeared, which changed the entire appearance and structure of planet Earth - Homo sapiens.
Cenozoic era documentary:
Do you need high-quality film with air bubbles for packaging? In this case, you should know that air bubble film can be purchased at AvantPak. In addition, a large selection of bags and films for any need.
Cenozoic era
The Cenozoic era - the era of new life - began about 67 million years ago and continues in our time. During this era, the modern topography, climate, atmosphere, flora and fauna, and people were formed.
The Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.
Paleogene period
The Paleogene period (in translation - born a long time ago) is divided into three eras: Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.
In the Paleogene period, the northern continent of Atlantia still existed, separated by a wide strait from Asia. Australia and South America, in general terms, have already acquired modern forms. South Africa was formed with the island of Madagascar; on the site of its northern part there were large and small islands. India, in the form of an island, has approached Asia almost closely. At the beginning of the Paleogene period, the land sank, as a result of which the sea flooded large areas.
In the Eocene and Oligocene, mountain-building processes took place (alpine orogenesis), which formed the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians. The formation of the Cordillera, Andes, Himalayas, and the mountains of Central and South Asia continues. Coal-bearing strata form on continents. Marine sediments during this period are dominated by sands, clays, marls and volcanic rocks.
The climate changed several times, becoming warm and humid, then arid and cool. It snowed in the northern hemisphere. Climatic zones were clearly visible. There were seasons.
The shallow seas of the Paleogene period were inhabited by a huge number of nummulites, the coin-shaped shells of which often overflow the Paleogene sediments. There were relatively few cephalopods. Of the once numerous clans, only a few remain, mostly living in our time. There were many gastropods, radiolarians, and sponges. In general, most invertebrates of the Paleogene period differ from invertebrates living in modern seas.
The number of bony fish increases, and the number of ganoid fish becomes smaller.
At the beginning of the Paleogene period, marsupial mammals spread significantly. They had many similarities with reptiles: they reproduced by laying eggs; often their body was covered with scales; the structure of the skull resembled that of reptiles. But unlike reptiles, marsupials had a constant body temperature and fed their young with milk.
Among marsupial mammals there were herbivores. They resembled modern kangaroos and marsupial bears. There were also predators: a marsupial wolf and a marsupial tiger. Many insectivores settled near water bodies. Some marsupials have adapted to life in trees. Marsupials gave birth to underdeveloped young, which were then carried for a long time in skin pouches on the abdomen.
Many marsupials ate only one type of food, for example, the koala - only eucalyptus leaves. All this, along with other primitive features of the organization, led to the extinction of marsupials. More advanced mammals gave birth to developed young and ate a variety of vegetation. In addition, unlike clumsy marsupials, they easily escaped from predators. The ancestors of modern mammals began to populate the earth. Only in Australia, which separated early from other continents, did the evolutionary process seem to freeze. Here the kingdom of marsupials has survived to this day.
In the Eocene, the first horses (Eohippus) appeared - small animals that lived in forests near swamps. They had five toes on their front legs, four of them had hooves, and their hind legs had three hooves. They had a small head on a short neck and had 44 teeth. The molars were low. This suggests that the animals ate mainly soft vegetation.
Eohippus.
Subsequently, the climate changed, and in place of swampy forests, arid steppes with coarse grass formed.
The descendants of Eohippus - Orohippus - were almost no different in size from them, but had high tetrahedral molars, with the help of which they could grind rather tough vegetation. The skull of Orohippus is more similar to that of a modern horse than that of Eohippus. It is the same size as a fox skull.
The descendants of orohippus - mesohippus - adapted to new living conditions. There were three toes left on their front and hind legs, the middle of which were larger and longer than the side ones. This allowed the animals to run quickly on solid ground. The small soft hooves of Eohippus, adapted to soft, marshy soils, develop into a real hoof. Mesohippus was the size of a modern wolf. They inhabited the Oligocene steppes in large herds.
The descendants of Mesohippus - Merikhippus - were the size of a donkey. They had cement on their teeth.
Merikhippus.
In the Eocene, the ancestors of rhinoceroses appeared - large hornless animals. At the end of the Eocene, Uintatheria evolved from them. They had three pairs of horns, dagger-shaped long fangs and a very small brain.
Titanotherium, the size of modern elephants, also representatives of Eocene animals, had large branched horns. The teeth of titanotheriums were small; the animals probably fed on soft vegetation. They lived in meadows near numerous rivers and lakes.
Arsenotherium had a pair of large and small horns. Their body length reached 3 m. The distant descendants of these animals are domans, small ungulates living in our time.
Arsenotherium.
In the territory of modern Kazakhstan during the Oligocene period, the climate was warm and humid. Many antlerless deer lived in the forests and steppes. Long-necked indricotheriums were also found here. Their body length reached 8 m, and their height was about 6 m. Indricotheres fed on soft plant foods. When the climate became arid, they died out from lack of food.
Indricotherium.
In the Eocene period, the ancestors of living proboscideans appeared - animals the size of a modern tapir. Their tusks were small, and their trunk was an elongated upper lip. From them came Dinotherium, the lower jaw of which descended downward at a right angle. There were tusks at the end of the jaws. Dinotheriums already had real trunks. They lived in humid forests with lush vegetation.
At the end of the Eocene, the first representatives of elephants appeared - paleomastodons and the first representatives of toothed and toothless whales, sirens.
Some ancestors of monkeys and lemurs lived in trees and ate fruits and insects. They had long tails that helped them climb trees, and limbs with well-developed fingers.
In the Eocene, the first pigs, beavers, hamsters, porcupines, dwarf humpless camels, the first bats, broad-nosed monkeys appeared, and in Africa the first apes appeared.
Predatory creodonts, small, wolf-like animals, did not yet have true “carnivorous” teeth. Their teeth were almost identical in size, and their skeletal structure was primitive. In the Eocene, true predators with differentiated teeth evolved from them. In the course of evolution, all representatives of dogs and cats developed from these predators.
The Paleogene period is characterized by an uneven distribution of fauna across the continents. Tapirs and titanotheriums developed mainly in America, proboscis and carnivores - in Africa. Marsupials continue to live in Australia. Thus, gradually the fauna of each continent acquires an individual character.
Paleogene amphibians and reptiles are no different from modern ones.
Many toothless birds appeared, characteristic of our time. But along with them lived huge flightless birds, completely extinct in the Paleogene - diatryma and fororakos.
Diatryma was 2 m in height with a long beak, up to 50 cm. Her strong paws had four toes with long claws. Diatryma lived in the arid steppes, feeding on small mammals and reptiles.
Diatryma.
Fororakos reached 1.5 m in height. Its sharp, hooked, half-meter beak was a very formidable weapon. Because it had small, undeveloped wings, it could not fly. The long, strong legs of the Fororakos indicate that they were excellent runners. According to some researchers, the homeland of these huge birds was Antarctica, which at that time was covered with forests and steppes.
Fororakos.
During the Paleogene period, the vegetation cover of the Earth also changed. Many new genera of angiosperms are appearing. Two vegetation regions emerged. The first, covering Mexico, Western Europe and Northern Asia, was a tropical region. The area was dominated by evergreen laurels, palms, myrtles, giant sequoias, tropical oaks and tree ferns. On the territory of modern Europe, chestnuts, oaks, laurels, camphor trees, magnolias, breadfruit trees, palm trees, thujas, araucarias, grapes, and bamboo grew.
During the Eocene, the climate became even warmer. Many sandalwood and soap trees, eucalyptus and cinnamon trees appear. At the end of the Eocene, the climate became somewhat colder. Poplars, oaks, and maples appear.
The second plant region covered Northern Asia, America and the modern Arctic. This area was a temperate climate zone. Oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, beeches, birches, poplars, and viburnum grew there. Sequoia and ginkgo were somewhat smaller. Sometimes there were palm trees and spruce trees. The forests, the remains of which had turned into brown coal over time, were very swampy. They were dominated by conifers, rising above the swamps on numerous aerial roots. In drier places, oaks, poplars, and magnolias grew. The banks of the swamps were covered with reeds.
During the Paleogene period, many deposits of brown coal, oil, gas, manganese ores, ilmenite, phosphorites, glass sands, and oolitic iron ores were formed.
The Paleogene period lasted 40 million years.
Neogene period
The Neogene period (translated as newborn) is divided into two sections: Miocene and Pliocene. During this period, Europe connected with Asia. Two deep gulfs that arose on the territory of Atlantia subsequently separated Europe from North America. Africa was fully formed, and Asia continued to form.
On the site of the modern Bering Strait, an isthmus continues to exist, connecting Northeast Asia with North America. From time to time this isthmus was flooded by a shallow sea. The oceans have acquired modern shapes. Thanks to mountain-building movements, the Alps, Himalayas, Cordillera, and East Asian ranges are formed. At their feet, depressions form in which thick layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks are deposited. Twice the sea flooded vast areas of continents, depositing clays, sands, limestones, gypsum, and salt. At the end of the Neogene, most of the continents were freed from the sea. The climate of the Neogene period was quite warm and humid, but somewhat cooler compared to the climate of the Paleogene period. At the end of the Neogene, it gradually acquired modern features.
The organic world is also becoming similar to the modern one. Primitive creodonts are being replaced by bears, hyenas, martens, dogs, and badgers. Being more mobile and having a more complex organization, they adapted to a variety of living conditions, intercepted prey from creodonts and marsupial predators, and sometimes even fed on them.
Along with species that, having changed somewhat, have survived to our time, species of predators also appeared that became extinct in the Neogene. These primarily include the saber-toothed tiger. It is so named because its upper fangs were 15 cm long and slightly curved. They stuck out from the closed mouth of the animal. In order to use them, the saber-toothed tiger had to open its mouth wide. Tigers hunted horses, gazelles, and antelopes.
Saber-toothed tiger.
The descendants of the paleogeon Merikhippus, the hipparions, already had teeth like those of a modern horse. Their small side hooves did not touch the ground. The hooves on the middle toes became increasingly larger and wider. They kept animals well on solid ground, gave them the opportunity to tear up the snow to extract food from under it, and protect themselves from predators.
Along with the North American center for the development of horses, there was also a European one. However, in Europe, ancient horses became extinct at the beginning of the Oligocene, leaving no descendants. Most likely they were exterminated by numerous predators. In America, ancient horses continued to develop. Subsequently, they gave real horses, which penetrated through the Bering Isthmus into Europe and Asia. In America, horses became extinct at the beginning of the Pleistocene, and large herds of modern mustangs, freely grazing on the American prairies, are distant descendants of horses brought by Spanish colonialists. Thus, a kind of exchange of horses took place between the New World and the Old World.
Giant sloths, Megatherium (up to 8 m in length), lived in South America. Standing on their hind legs, they ate the leaves of the trees. Megatheriums had a thick tail, a low skull with a small brain. Their front legs were much shorter than their hind legs. Being slow, they became easy prey for predators and therefore completely died out, leaving no descendants.
Changing climatic conditions led to the formation of vast steppes, which favored the development of ungulates. From small antlerless deer that lived on swampy soil, numerous artiodactyls descended - antelopes, goats, bison, rams, gazelles, whose strong hooves were well adapted for fast running in the steppes. When artiodactyls multiplied in such numbers that food shortages began to be felt, some of them mastered new habitats: rocks, forest-steppes, deserts. From the giraffe-shaped humpless camels that lived in Africa, real camels evolved that populated the deserts and semi-deserts of Europe and Asia. The hump with nutrients allowed camels to go without water and food for a long time.
The forests were inhabited by real deer, some species of which are still found today, while others, such as megaloceras, which were one and a half times larger than ordinary deer, became completely extinct.
Giraffes lived in forest-steppe zones, and hippos, pigs, and tapirs lived near lakes and swamps. Rhinoceroses and anteaters lived in the dense bushes.
Among the proboscideans, mastodons with straight long tusks and real elephants appear.
Lemurs, monkeys, and apes live in trees. Some lemurs switched to a terrestrial lifestyle. They walked on their hind legs. Reached 1.5 m in height. They ate mainly fruits and insects.
The giant bird Dinornis, which lived in New Zealand, reached 3.5 m in height. The head and wings of Dinornis were small, and the beak was underdeveloped. He walked along the ground on long strong legs. Dinornis lived until the Quaternary period and, obviously, was exterminated by humans.
During the Neogene period, dolphins, seals, and walruses appeared - species that still live in modern conditions.
At the beginning of the Neogene period in Europe and Asia there were many predatory animals: dogs, saber-toothed tigers, hyenas. Among the herbivores, mastodons, deer, and one-horned rhinoceroses predominated.
In North America, carnivores were represented by dogs and saber-toothed tigers, and herbivores by titanotherium, horses and deer.
South America was somewhat isolated from North America. Representatives of its fauna were marsupials, megatheriums, sloths, armadillos, and broad-nosed monkeys.
During the Upper Miocene period, an exchange of fauna occurred between North America and Eurasia. Many animals moved from continent to continent. North America is inhabited by mastodons, rhinoceroses, and predators, and horses move to Europe and Asia.
With the beginning of the Ligocene, hornless rhinoceroses, mastodons, antelopes, gazelles, pigs, tapirs, giraffes, saber-toothed tigers, and bears settled in Asia, Africa and Europe. However, in the second half of the Pliocene, the climate on Earth became cool, and animals such as mastodons, tapirs, giraffes moved south, and bulls, bison, deer, and bears appeared in their place. In the Pliocene, the connection between America and Asia was interrupted. At the same time, communications between North and South America were resumed. North American fauna moved to South America and gradually replaced its fauna. Of the local fauna, only armadillos, sloths and anteaters remained; bears, llamas, pigs, deer, dogs, and cats have spread.
Australia was isolated from other continents. Consequently, no significant changes in the fauna occurred there.
Among marine invertebrates at this time, bivalves and gastropods and sea urchins predominate. Bryozoans and corals form reefs in southern Europe. The Arctic zoogeographic provinces can be traced: the northern, which included England, the Netherlands and Belgium, the southern - Chile, Patagonia and New Zealand.
The brackish water fauna has become widespread. Its representatives inhabited large shallow seas formed on the continents as a result of the advance of the Neogene sea. This fauna completely lacks corals, sea urchins and stars. In terms of the number of genera and species, mollusks are significantly inferior to the mollusks that inhabited the ocean with normal salinity. However, in terms of the number of individuals, they are many times larger than those of the ocean. The shells of small brackish-water mollusks literally overflow the sediments of these seas. Fish are no longer at all different from modern ones.
The cooler climate caused the gradual disappearance of tropical forms. Climatic zonation is already clearly visible.
If at the beginning of the Miocene the flora is almost no different from the Paleogene, then in the middle of the Miocene palm trees and laurels already grow in the southern regions, in the middle latitudes conifers, hornbeams, poplars, alders, chestnuts, oaks, birches and reeds predominate; in the north - spruce, pine, sedge, birch, hornbeam, willow, beech, ash, oak, maple, plum.
In the Pliocene period, laurels, palm trees, and southern oaks still remained in southern Europe. However, along with them there are ash trees and poplars. In northern Europe, heat-loving plants have disappeared. Their place was taken by pine, spruce, birch, and hornbeam trees. Siberia was covered with coniferous forests and only in the river valleys were walnuts found.
In North America, during the Miocene, heat-loving forms were gradually replaced by broad-leaved and coniferous species. At the end of the Pliocene, tundra existed in northern North America and Eurasia.
Deposits of oil, flammable gases, sulfur, gypsum, coal, iron ores, and rock salt are associated with deposits of the Neogene period.
The Neogene period lasted 20 million years.
Quaternary period
The Quaternary period is divided into two sections: the Pleistocene (the time of almost new life) and the Holocene (the time of completely new life). Four major glaciations are associated with the Quaternary period. They were given the following names: Günz, Mindel, Ris and Würm.
During the Quaternary period, the continents and oceans acquired their modern shape. The climate has changed repeatedly. At the beginning of the Pliocene period, a general uplift of the continents occurred. The huge Günz glacier moved from the north, carrying with it a large amount of debris. Its thickness reached 800 m. In large spots it covered most of North America and the alpine region of Europe. Greenland was under the glacier. Then the glacier melted, and the debris (moraine, boulders, sand) remained on the soil surface. The climate became relatively warm and humid. At that time, the islands of England were separated from France by a river valley, and the Thames was a tributary of the Rhine. The Black and Azov Seas were much wider than modern ones, and the Caspian Sea was deeper.
Hippos, rhinoceroses, and horses lived in Western Europe. Elephants, up to 4 m high, inhabited the territory of modern France. In Europe and Asia there were lions, tigers, wolves, and hyenas. The largest predator of that time was the cave bear. It is almost a third larger than modern bears. The bear lived in caves and ate mainly vegetation.
Cave bear.
The tundras and steppes of Eurasia and North America were inhabited by mammoths that reached 3.5 m in height. On their backs they had a large hump with fat reserves that helped them endure hunger. Thick fur and a thick layer of subcutaneous fat protected mammoths from the cold. With the help of highly developed curved tusks, they shoveled snow in search of food.
Mammoth.
Early Pleistocene plants are represented mainly by maples, birches, spruces, and oaks. Tropical vegetation is no longer completely different from modern vegetation.
The Mindel glacier reached the territory of the modern Moscow region, covered the Northern Urals, the upper reaches of the Elbe and part of the Carpathians.
In North America, the glacier has spread to most of Canada and the northern part of the United States. The thickness of the glacier reached 1000 m. Subsequently, the glacier melted, and the debris it brought covered the soil. The wind blew this material, the waters washed it away, gradually forming thick layers of loess. Sea levels have risen significantly. The valleys of the northern rivers were flooded. A sea strait was formed between England and France.
In Western Europe, dense forests of oaks, elms, yews, beeches, and mountain ash grew. There were rhododendrons, figs, and boxwood. Consequently, the climate at that time was much warmer than today.
Typical polar fauna (Arctic fox, polar wolf, reindeer) moves to the northern tundra. Along with them live mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and big-horned deer. The woolly rhinoceros was covered with thick, long hair. It reached a height of 1.6 m and a length of about 4 m. The woolly rhinoceros had two horns on its head: a sharp large one, up to one meter long, and a smaller one located behind the large one.
Woolly rhinoceros.
The big-horned deer had huge antlers, reminiscent in shape of the antlers of a modern elk. The distance between the ends of the horns reached 3 m. They weighed about 40 kg. Big-horned deer spread widely throughout Europe and Asia and survived into the Holocene.
Big-horned deer.
To the south of the tundra lived long-horned bison, horses, deer, saigas, brown and cave bears, wolves, foxes, rhinoceroses, cave and common lions. Cave lions were almost a third larger than ordinary lions. They had thick fur and a long shaggy mane. There were cave hyenas, almost twice the size of modern hyenas. Hippos lived in southern Europe. Sheep and goats lived in the mountains.
The Ris glaciation covered the northern part of Western Europe with a thick - up to 3000 m - layer of ice; two long glaciers reached the territory of present-day Dnepropetrovsk, the Timan Ridge and the upper reaches of the Kama.
Ice covered almost the entire northern part of North America.
Mammoths, reindeer, arctic foxes, partridges, bison, woolly rhinoceroses, wolves, foxes, brown bears, hares, and musk oxen lived near the glaciers.
Mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses spread to the borders of modern Italy and settled in the territory of present-day England and Siberia.
The glacier melted and the sea level rose again, causing it to flood the northern coasts of Western Europe and North America.
The climate remained wet and cold. Forests in which spruce, hornbeam, alder, birch, pine, and maple trees grew spread. The forests were inhabited by aurochs, deer, lynxes, wolves, foxes, hares, roe deer, wild boars, and bears. Rhinoceroses were found in the forest-steppe zone. In the resulting vast southern steppes, herds of bison, bison, horses, saigas, and ostriches roamed. They were hunted by wild dogs, lions, and hyenas.
The Würm glaciation covered the northern part of Western Europe with ice, the modern territory of the European part of the Soviet Union to the latitudes of Minsk, Kalinin, and the upper Volga. The northern part of Canada was covered with patches of glacier. The thickness of the glacier reached 300–500 m. Its terminal and bottom moraines formed the modern moraine landscape. Cold and dry steppes arose near the glaciers. Dwarf birches and willows grew there. In the south, the taiga began, where spruce, pine, and larches grew. Mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, musk oxen, arctic foxes, reindeer, white hares and partridges lived in the tundra; in the steppe zone - horses, rhinoceroses, saigas, bulls, cave lions, hyenas, wild dogs; ferrets, gophers; in the forest - deer, lynxes, wolves, foxes, beavers, bears, aurochs.
The Würm glacier retreated gradually. Having reached the Baltic Sea, he stopped. Many lakes formed nearby, where so-called ribbon clays were deposited - rock with alternating layers of sand and clay. Sandy layers were deposited in the summer, when rapid streams formed as a result of intense ice melting. In winter, there was less water, the strength of the streams weakened, and the water could transport and deposit only small particles from which layers of clay were formed.
Finland at that time looked like an archipelago. The Baltic Sea was connected by a wide strait to the Arctic Ocean.
Later, the glacier retreated to the center of Scandinavia, tundra formed in the north, and then taiga. Rhinoceroses and mammoths are dying out. Polar forms of animals migrate north. The fauna is gradually acquiring a modern appearance. However, unlike the modern one, it is characterized by a significant number of individuals. Huge herds of bison, saigas, and horses inhabited the southern steppes.
The savannas of Europe were inhabited by lions, hyenas, and sometimes tigers came here. In its forests there were aurochs and leopards. There were much more modern representatives of the forest fauna. And the forests themselves occupied a large area.
There were a lot of fish in the deep rivers of Europe. And giant herds of reindeer and musk oxen walked across the tundra.
Giant Dinornis and flightless birds - moas and dodos - also live in New Zealand. In Madagascar, there are ostrich-shaped apiornis, reaching a height of 3–4 m. Their eggs are now found in the swamps of the island. Passenger pigeons back in the 19th century. settled in huge flocks in America. Great auks lived near Iceland. All these birds were exterminated by humans.
The Quaternary period is associated with deposits of gold, platinum, diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, as well as the formation of deposits of peat, iron, sand, clay and loess.
The Quaternary period continues today.
Human Origins
The Quaternary period is also called the Anthropocene period (the one that gave birth to man). For a long time, people have wondered how they appeared on Earth. Hunting tribes believed that people descended from animals. Each tribe had its own ancestor: a lion, a bear or a wolf. These animals were considered holy. Hunting them was strictly prohibited.
According to the ancient Babylonians, man was created from clay by the god Bel. The Greeks considered the king of the gods Zeus to be the creator of people.
Ancient Greek philosophers tried to explain the appearance of man on Earth by more earthly reasons. Anaximander (610–546 BC) explained the origin of animals and people by the influence of the Sun on silt and water. Anaxagoras (500–428 BC) believed that humans descended from fish.
In the Middle Ages, it was believed that God created man from clay “in his own image and likeness.”
The Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1770–1778), although he believed in the divine origin of man, however, in his taxonomy he combined man with apes.
Moscow University professor Karl Frantsevich Roulier (1814–1858) argued that marine organisms first appeared on Earth and then moved to the shores of reservoirs. Later they began to live on land. Man, in his opinion, evolved from animals.
French explorer Georges Buffon (1707–1788) emphasized the anatomical similarities between humans and animals. The French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), in his book “Philosophy of Zoology,” published in 1809, defended the idea that man is a descendant of great apes.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) in his book “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” analyzed the problem of the origin of man from animal ancestors in the light of the theory of natural selection. In order for a person to be formed, Darwin writes, he had to free his hands. The greatest strength of man lies in mental activity, which ultimately led him to the manufacture of stone tools.
Friedrich Engels explained the reasons for the release of hands in the ape-like ancestors of people and showed the role of labor in the formation of man.
The theory of human origin from ape-like ancestors was met with indignation by most researchers. Evidence was needed. And the evidence appeared. Dutch researcher Eugene Dubois excavated the remains of Pithecanthropus in Java - creatures that had both human and monkey characteristics, therefore, they represented a transitional stage from monkey to man. Professor of the Beijing Medical Institute Davidson Black in 1927 finds the remains of Sinanthropus, very similar to Pithecanthropus. In 1907, the remains of a European relative of Pithecanthropus, Heidelberg man, were found in Germany. In 1929, anthropologist Raymond Dart finds the remains of an Australopithecus in South Africa. And finally, L. Leakey and his son R. Leakey in 1931 and 1961 found the remains of the most ancient australopithecus - Zinjanthropus, which inhabited South Africa 2.5 million years ago.
Along with the remains of the Zinjanthropes, stone tools made from broken pebbles and bone fragments were found. Consequently, the Zinjanthropes used tools and hunted game. There was still a lot of ape in their structure, but they already walked on their feet, had a relatively large brain and teeth similar to human ones. All this gave researchers grounds to classify the Zinjanthropes as the most ancient people.
How did man develop?
At the beginning of the Paleogene period, some of the insectivorous mammals adapted to life in trees. They gave rise to prosimians, and from the latter in the Eocene, in turn, came the narrow-nosed and broad-nosed monkeys. In the Oligocene forests of Africa lived small monkeys - propliopithecus - the ancestors of the Miocene dryopithecus, which widely settled in the tropical forests of Africa, Europe and Asia. On the surface of the lower molars of Dryopithecus there were five tubercles, like those of modern apes. It was from Dryopithecus, and possibly from forms similar to them, that all modern apes originated.
At the end of the Miocene, a noticeable cooling occurred. In place of tropical forests, steppes and forest-steppes formed. Some monkeys moved south, where dense tropical forests continued to grow. Others remained in place and gradually adapted to the new living conditions. Moving on the ground, they lost the habit of climbing trees. Unable to carry prey in their relatively weak jaws, they carried it in their front paws. Consequently, they walked on their hind legs, which ultimately led to the division of their limbs into legs and arms. As a result of walking on two legs, the figure of the great ape gradually straightened, the arms became shorter, and the legs, on the contrary, became longer and more muscular. The big toe gradually became thicker and closer to the other toes, making it easier to walk on hard ground.
When walking straight, the neck straightened. The large mouth became smaller, since it was no longer necessary to tear apart the prey. Freed from walking and climbing, the hand became more and more dexterous. With it it was already possible to take a stone or a stick - a tool. As the area of forests decreased, the fruits that the apes ate became smaller. Therefore, they were forced to look for some other food.
Apes began to hunt animals, using sticks, fragments of bones, and stones as weapons. Since the apes were relatively weak, they united in groups to hunt, and communication between them increased, which, in turn, contributed to the development of the brain. The shape of the head changes: the face decreases, the skull increases.
The descendants of Dryopithecus - Ramapithecus and Kenyapithecus - have teeth similar to human teeth, posture is adapted to walking on two legs, and the arms are short compared to the arms of Dryopithecus. Height reached 130 cm, weight - 40 kg. Kenyapithecus lived in sparse forests. They ate plant foods and meat. The first people descended from Kenyapithecus.
The first man on Earth - Australopithecus (southern ape) - appeared in South Africa 2.5 million years ago. The Australopithecus skull resembles that of a chimpanzee: its face is short. The pelvic bones are similar to the human pelvic bones. Australopithecus walked upright. Its teeth were almost no different in structure from human teeth. This suggests that Australopithecus could eat fairly solid food. The volume of his brain reached 650 cm3. This is almost half the size of a human brain, but almost equal to the brain of a gorilla, although Australopithecus was significantly smaller than the gorilla.
Australopithecus lived in the steppes, near numerous limestone rocks. They hunted antelopes and baboons with sticks, sharp stones and bones. They killed animals from ambush by throwing stones at them from cliffs. In addition to meat and animal brains, which were obtained by splitting bones with a sharp stone, australopithecines ate roots, fruits, and edible herbs.
Australopithecus.
Along with the australopithecines, whose height corresponded to the growth of modern African pygmies, lived the so-called massive australopithecines, which were almost a third larger than the australopithecines. Somewhat later, developed australopithecines appear, in which, unlike the common australopithecines, the figure is more straightened and the brain is larger. Advanced australopithecus split pebbles and bones to make weapons for hunting. From the developed Australopithecines a million years ago, erect humans evolved. They already had an almost completely straight posture, relatively short arms and long legs. Their brains were larger than those of Australopithecus and their faces were shorter. The straightened man made hand axes and knew how to use fire. He settled throughout Africa, Asia and Europe.
From upright people came early humans. Their skulls are very different in shape from the skulls of monkeys, their shoulders are turned, the skeleton is somewhat thinner than that of straightened people. Early people, by beating flint, made rather monotonous tools - hand axes.
Simultaneously with early people 20 thousand years ago on the island. Java lived Pithecanthropus (ape people), very similar to early humans. Pithecanthropus roamed the steppes and forests in small herds in search of food. They ate fruits, roots, and hunted small animals. They made tools from fragments of stones: scrapers, drills.
Pithecanthropus.
By sharpening sticks, Pithecanthropus made primitive spears. Their brain volume was 800–1000 cm3. The frontal parts of the brain were highly developed, which is important for the development of higher nervous activity. The visual and auditory areas of the brain also developed. The Pithecanthropes began to talk.
Sinanthropus (Chinese people) lived on the territory of modern China. Receiving fire from fires, they stored it in their camps. They cooked food, warmed themselves by the fire, protected themselves from predators.
Sinanthropus.
Protanthropes (primitive people) lived on the territory of modern Europe. The climate at that time was relatively warm and humid. Ancient elephants, rhinoceroses, horses, pigs, and moose lived in rare forests. Saber-toothed tigers, lions, and hyenas fed on them. Protanthropes wandered in small herds along the rivers. They hunted game using sharp sticks and stone tools made from quartzite sandstones. They collected roots and fruits.
Heidelberg protanthropes.
Neanderthals descended from early humans, and possibly from very similar synanthropes and protanthropes. They got their name from the Neanderthal Valley in Western Germany, where their remains were first discovered. Subsequently, the remains of Neanderthals were found in France, Belgium, England, Czechoslovakia, Spain, the USSR, China, as well as in Africa and on the island of Java.
Neanderthals lived 150,000–350,000 years ago. They had sloping foreheads, low skulls, large teeth, no different in structure from the teeth of modern humans. The average height of Neanderthals was 160 cm. The brain was almost the same as that of modern humans. The parietal, frontal, occipital and temporal parts of the brain developed.
The jaws of Neanderthals protruded somewhat forward. Neanderthals had a wide and long face, a wide nose, convex brow ridges, small eyes, a thick and short neck, a massive spine, a narrow pelvis, and short shin bones. The body was covered with thick hair.
Neanderthals lived in small groups, hunted small animals, and collected roots, fruits, and berries. Tools and weapons were made of stone. Neanderthals made hand axes in the shape of a triangle or oval. They made knives, drills, and scrapers with very sharp blades from fragments of stones. As a rule, flint was used for tools. Sometimes they were made from the bones or tusks of predators. Neanderthals made clubs from wood. By burning the ends of the branches, they obtained primitive spears. To escape the cold, Neanderthals wrapped themselves in skins. To keep warm and protect themselves from predators, Neanderthals built fires in caves. Often the caves were occupied by cave bears. The Neanderthals drove them out with torches, beat them with clubs, and threw stones on top of them.
Neanderthals.
Neanderthals began to hunt large animals. They drove Siberian goats into abysses, and dug deep pit traps for rhinoceroses. To hunt, Neanderthals united in hunting groups, therefore, they were forced to communicate with each other using speech and gestures. Their speech was very primitive and consisted only of simple words. Having exterminated game near their homes, Neanderthals moved to new places, taking with them skins, tools, and weapons.
The life expectancy of Neanderthals was short - 30–40 years, and they were often sick. They were especially bothered by rheumatism, which developed under living conditions in cold, damp caves. Many died from attacks by pigs and rhinoceroses. Neanderthal tribes appeared who hunted people.
Neanderthals buried their dead relatives in shallow pits in which they placed stone tools, bones, teeth, and horns.
It is likely that they believed in an afterlife. Before hunting, Neanderthals performed rituals: they worshiped the skulls of the animals they were going to hunt, etc.
Along with the classical type of Neanderthal, atypical Neanderthals appeared about a hundred thousand years ago, having a higher forehead, a less massive skeleton and a more flexible spine.
A sharp change in physical and geographical conditions, the replacement of glaciations with interglacial periods, as well as vegetation and fauna, accelerated the evolutionary process of mankind. Homo sapiens evolved from atypical Neanderthals, who were morphologically no different from modern ones. They spread widely throughout Asia, Africa, Europe, and reached Australia and America. They were called Cro-Magnons. Cro-Magnon skeletons were first found in the Cro-Magnon Grotto (France). This is where their name comes from. It turned out that modern man, in his anatomical structure, is almost no different from the Cro-Magnon man.
The Cro-Magnons lived alongside the Neanderthals for quite a long time, but later supplanted them, intercepting their prey in caves. There apparently were clashes between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons.
Cro-Magnons.
The first Cro-Magnons were hunters. They made quite advanced weapons and tools: bone spears with stone tips, bows, arrows, slings with stone balls, clubs with sharp teeth, sharp flint daggers, scrapers, choppers, awls, needles. Small tools were inserted into bone handles. Cro-Magnons dug pit traps and covered them from above with branches and grass, and built fences. In order to get close to prey unnoticed, they wore animal skins. They drove animals into pit traps or into abysses. Bison, for example, were driven into water, where the animals became less mobile, and therefore safer for hunters. Mammoths were driven into pit traps or separated from the herd, and then killed with long spears.
Children and women collected edible roots and fruits. The Cro-Magnons learned to dry and smoke meat, therefore, unlike the Neanderthals, they stored meat in reserve. They lived in caves, and where there were no caves, they dug dugouts and built huts and dwellings from the bones of mammoths, rhinoceroses, and bison.
Cro-Magnons learned to make fire by rubbing sticks or striking sparks from flint. Near the hearth there were workshops in which the Cro-Magnons made weapons and equipment. Nearby, women were sewing clothes. In winter, Cro-Magnons wrapped themselves in fur capes and wore fur clothes fastened with bone needles and clasps. Clothes were decorated with shells and teeth. Cro-Magnons made bracelets, necklaces, and amulets. The body was painted with colored clay. The dead Cro-Magnons were buried in deep pits, covered with stones or mammoth shoulder blades.
Rock paintings, sometimes occupying tens and hundreds of square meters of rocks and cave walls, had primarily ritual significance.
The Cro-Magnons also had musical instruments. They made drums from tree trunks or from the shoulder blades of the skeletons of large animals. The first flutes made from drilled bones appeared. Hunting dances were performed.
Wild dogs tamed by Cro-Magnons helped them hunt and protected them from predators.
The glaciers were retreating. The vegetation changed. The rough, poorly processed tools of the Cro-Magnon era, called Paleolithic (ancient stones), were replaced by polished tools that had a regular geometric shape. The Neolithic is coming (new stones).
In place of the melted glacier, many lakes formed. Fisheries are developing. Man invented a fishing rod and a boat. Some tribes built their homes on the water, on high stilts. Surrounded by water, they could not be afraid of enemies and predatory animals. And you didn’t have to go far to find fish. Hunting is still very important.
Gradually the climate became drier and the lakes became shallower. The amount of game decreased. During dry seasons and winter, food was scarce. People made supplies by drying fish and meat, collecting edible roots and fruits. Having caught young animals, they no longer ate them as before, but fattened them in order to get more meat, wool, and skin. Thus, at first the animals were used as a kind of reserve. Gradually, the Cro-Magnons began to domesticate and breed animals. Only those that did not reproduce or produced little wool, meat, or milk were slaughtered. In forest areas, people tamed pigs, in steppe areas - goats, sheep, and horses. In India, cows, buffaloes, and chickens were domesticated.
While collecting wild grains, people scattered the grains. New plants grew from the scattered grain. Noticing this, people began to grow them - agriculture. In the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, already 30 thousand years ago, people switched to a sedentary lifestyle and grew many different types of cereals. In the endless steppes of Europe and Asia, cattle breeding developed at this time. And in the north, people continued to live by hunting sea animals.
A historical era has begun. The development of mankind occurs thanks to the improvement of tools, housing, clothing, and the use of nature for its needs. Thus, biological evolution was replaced by social evolution. The steady improvement of tools has become decisive in the development of human society.
Loading...
