The development of culture in the 16th century was greatly influenced by the church. But also, along with church dogmas and teachings, pagan traditions played a significant role, which had not yet had time to assimilate with the life of Russian society and played a significant role in everyday life.
Development of literature
In the 16th century, the folklore genre of literature began to develop even more. The culture of the society includes historical songs, in which events significant for the people or outstanding personalities were sung.
A significant breakthrough in the development of literature can also be considered the emergence of journalism as a literary genre. Writers in their works begin to express their opinion between the lines about the state system of Russia, about what mistakes the tsars make in governing the state.
In the middle of the 16th century, a journalistic work was created " Conversation of the Valaam Elders”, in which the author opposes the intrusion of church politics into secular life.
The traditions of the annals are replacing historical and literary writings. alternative " Messages of Vladimir Monomakh to children"becomes the work of the monk Sylvester" Domostroy”: the author gives advice on how to properly raise children and treat a wife, how to manage a household.
Education and science in Russia in the 16th century
In the 16th century, the literacy of the Russian population, regardless of social status, was approximately 15%. Moreover, the children of peasants were significantly more educated than the children of city dwellers.
Children were educated in private schools attached to churches and monasteries. However, church literacy remained the most important science; it pushed arithmetic and grammar into the background.
The most important breakthrough in science and education was the beginning of printing. The first printing houses were opened in Russia. The first printed books were Holy Scripture and the Apostle.
Thanks to the professionalism of the father of book printing in Russia, Ivan Fedorov, the books were not only printed, but also substantially edited: he made his own accurate translations of the Bible and other books into Russian.
Unfortunately, printing did not make books more accessible to ordinary people, since it was mainly literature for church ministers that was printed. Many secular books were still copied by hand.
Life and culture of the Russian population in the XVI century
The life of the Russian population in the 16th century depended primarily on material well-being. The food at that time was quite simple, but varied: pancakes, loaves, jelly, vegetables and cereals.
Relatively inexpensive meat for those times was salted in oak tubs and kept for future use. Also, special love was enjoyed by fish dishes, which were consumed in all possible variations: salted, dried and dried.
Drinks were represented by non-alcoholic fruit drinks and compotes. Low-alcohol drinks tasted very much like modern beer, they were made on the basis of honey and hops.
In the 16th century, fasts were strictly observed, in addition to the main four fasts, people refused fast food on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Family relationships
Family relations were built on the basis of complete subordination to the head of the family. For disobedience of a wife or children, corporal punishment was a common practice of that time. Corporal punishment was applied even to boyar wives and children.
Young people entered into marriage mainly at the behest of their parents. This was especially common among the boyars, who, through the marriage unions of their children, tried to increase their well-being and strengthen their positions in society. Peasant youth were given the right to choose their own future spouse.
Here you can find information about home improvement, clothes and food of peasants.
Knowledge of people's way of life, traditions, and customs gives us the opportunity to preserve historical memory, to find those roots that will nourish new generations of Russians.
A peasant dwelling is a courtyard where residential and outbuildings, a garden and a kitchen garden were built.
The roofs of the buildings were thatched or wooden, often wooden figures of heads of various birds and animals were attached to the roofs.
The buildings themselves were built of wood, mostly pine and spruce. Dm and in the literal sense were chopped with an ax, but later saws also became known.
For the construction of even the largest buildings, a special foundation was not built. But instead of it, supports were laid in the corners and middles of the walls - stumps, large boulders.
The main buildings of the peasant household were: “a hut and a cage”, a room, tumblers, a hay, a barn, a barn. The hut is a common residential building. The upper room is a clean and bright building, built on top of the lower one, and here they slept and received guests. Povalushki and sennik - cold storerooms, in the summer they were living quarters.
The most important component of the peasant house was the Russian stove. They baked bread in it, cooked food, washed themselves, and slept on the upper wall.
Icons were the main decoration of the house. The images were placed in the upper corner of the chambers and covered with a curtain - a torture chamber.
Wall paintings and mirrors were banned by the Orthodox Church. Only small mirrors were brought from abroad and were part of the women's toilet.
In the home arrangement, the Russians had a noticeable custom to cover and cover everything. The floors were covered with carpets, matting, felts, benches and benches with benches, tables with tablecloths.
The houses were lit with candles and torches.
The houses of poor and rich people had the same names, structures, differed only in size and degree of decoration.
According to the cut, the clothes were the same for both the kings and the peasants.
Men's shirts were white or red, they were sewn from linen and canvas. The shirts were belted low with straps in a weak knot.
The clothes worn at home were called zipun. It was a narrow, short white dress.
Women's clothes were similar to men's, only they were longer. A flyer was worn over a long shirt. It had a slit in the front that fastened with buttons all the way to the throat.
All women wore earrings and headdresses.
The outer clothing of the peasants was a sheepskin coat. Sheepskin coats were changed for children.
Of the shoes, the peasants had bast shoes, shoes made of twigs and leather soles, which were tied to the foot with straps.
Peasant cuisine was Russian, national. The best cook was the one who knew how other housewives cook. Changes in food were introduced imperceptibly. The dishes were simple and varied.
According to the custom of the Russians to keep the posts holy, the table was divided into two parts: modest and lean, and according to supplies, the food was divided into five: fish, meat, flour, dairy and vegetable.
The floury ones included rye bread - the head of the table, various pies, loaves, casseroles, rolls; to fish - fish soup, baked dishes; for meat - side dishes, quick soups, pates and many others.
The drinks were: vodka, wine, juices, fruit drinks, berezovets, kvass, tea.
Sweets were natural: fresh fruits, fruits cooked in molasses.
I hope that my small contribution to the promotion of folk culture and way of life will partly help to ensure that this culture is preserved, knowledge of it will strengthen the mind and soul of the growing citizens and patriots of our Fatherland.
Turn of the XV - XVI centuries. - a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. The phenomena characteristic of this time had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process. The overcoming of fragmentation, the creation of a single state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country, served as powerful incentives for the rise of national self-consciousness.
Turn of the XV - XVI centuries. - a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. The phenomena characteristic of this time had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.
The overcoming of fragmentation, the creation of a single state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country, served as powerful incentives for the rise of national self-consciousness.
The largest country in Europe consisted of the middle of the XVI century. hardly more than 9-10 million people, distributed moreover unevenly across the territory. Only the center and the Novgorod-Pskov land were relatively densely populated, where the density apparently reached 5 people per 1 sq. km. km. (For comparison: in the countries of Western Europe at that time the density was from 10 to 30 inhabitants per sq. km.). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the first half of the 16th century was favorable for the growth of the population of Russia, which increased approximately one and a half times during this period; consequently, at the beginning of the century, when the Russian state arose, it united about 6 million people under its rule. This means that the average population density was about 2 people. per 1 sq. km. Such a low population density, even if in some areas of the center and northwest and during the first half of the 16th century it increased by 2-3 times, remained extremely insufficient for the intensive development of the economy and the solution of tasks related to the defense of the country.
dwelling
For a long time, housing has served not only to satisfy a person's need for housing, but also as a part of his economic and economic life. Naturally, the social differentiation of society was also reflected in the features of the dwelling, its size, well-being. Each era is characterized by its own special features in residential and outbuildings, in their complexes. The study of these features gives us additional knowledge about the past era, provides details not only about the everyday life of past generations, but also about the social and economic aspects of their existence.
The end of the 15th and 16th centuries is a kind of milestone in our sources on the history of the material culture of the Russian people; archaeological data, as a rule, do not rise chronologically above the 15th century. Separate observations of archaeologists on the material culture of the 16th - 17th centuries. are mined along with the study of earlier periods and are relatively fragmentary. Special works on the late Russian Middle Ages are rare, although their data on dwellings are very valuable to us. But with the decrease in archaeological data, the amount of documentary information also increases. Fragmentary and accidental references to dwellings in the annals, which we are forced to content ourselves with for periods up to the 16th century, are now significantly supplemented by an ever-increasing number of act records and other official documents. Dry, brief, but very valuable in their mass character, the data of cadastral books make it possible to make the first generalizations, calculations, and comparisons of various types of buildings. In some places in these sources, a description of curious details in the characterization of residential and outbuildings also slips. To these data from written Russian sources, one must add the notes of foreigners who visited Russia at that time. Not everything in their observations and descriptions is reliable and clear for us, but many details of Russian life in the 16th century. they are noticed and conveyed accurately, and much is understood taking into account the comparative study of other sources. Sketches of Russian life, made from outside, brought to us something that was not at all reflected in Russian documents, since for Russian authors a lot was so familiar that, in their opinion, it was not worth paying special attention to.
Perhaps, only since the 16th century we have the right to talk about the appearance of another type of sources on material culture, the importance of which is difficult to overestimate, various graphic materials. No matter how accurate the written information, they give us at best a list of the names of buildings or their parts, but from them it is almost impossible to imagine what they looked like. Only from the 16th century did drawings come into our possession, which quite fully reflect the life of then Russia. The manner of these drawings is sometimes unusually conventional for us, subject to certain canons of icon painting or book miniatures, but, having carefully looked at them, having mastered the language of conventions to some extent, one can quite accurately imagine the real features of the life of that time. Among the monuments of this kind, an outstanding place is occupied by the colossal illustrated Chronicle, created according to the plan and with the participation of Ivan IV in 1553-1570. Thousands of miniatures of this collection provide the researcher with excellent visual material on many aspects of Russian life, including housing. They are successfully complemented by some iconic scenes and miniatures of other books of this era.
The social structure of Russian society was also reflected in the system of subdivision of settlements into certain units, which for the peasantry were at the same time units of taxation, taxable units and actually existing cells of the settlement of a peasant family. Yards were such units. Documents and chronicles know a courtyard, a courtyard place, a courtyard in these two, at first glance, not equivalent, meanings. Of course, where we are talking about monastery yards, boyar yards, clerks’ yards, clerk yards, craftsmen’s yards, or even more specific names cow yard, stable yard, gross yard, we are dealing only with the designation of a certain space occupied by a complex of residential and outbuildings. But for the main taxable population, for the peasantry, the concepts of a yard as a farmstead, a complex of buildings and a yard as a taxable unit coincided to a certain extent, since only a full-fledged peasant household, which had a full set of buildings necessary for farming and residence of a peasant family.
The composition of buildings typical of a medieval Russian peasant household has recently been aroused by lively controversy. It is believed that the composition of buildings and even those types of buildings that ethnography knows from the life of a Russian village in the 19th century are primordial and almost unchanged in Russia from ancient times, even from the period before Mongolian Russia. However, the accumulation of archaeological data on ancient Russian dwellings, a more careful analysis of written sources and medieval graphics cast doubt on this conclusion.
Archaeological data speak quite clearly about a more complex history of the development of the Russian complex of residential and outbuildings, this was drawn earlier. The most striking thing seemed to be the minimum number of buildings for livestock, although there is no doubt that the population had a lot of livestock. For hundreds of open residential buildings, there are literally a few fundamental buildings for livestock. Equally unusual was the conclusion about the predominance of single-chamber residential buildings. Quite complex types of multi-chamber and two-chamber communication of residential and utility premises were also known, but they are a minority. From these facts one inevitably has to draw a conclusion about the gradual and rather complex development of residential complexes, moreover, this development in different geographical zones went its own way, led to the formation of special zonal types. As far as our sources allow us to judge this, the beginning of this process falls at the turn of the 15th to the 17th centuries, although the addition of ethnographic types in the 19th century also increased. can hardly be considered completely finished, since by their nature residential complexes were closely connected with changes in the socio-economic life of the population and reflected these changes constantly.
The earliest documentary records of the composition of peasant households describe it to us very succinctly: a hut and a crate. The above extracts from documents of the end of the 15th century might seem random and atypical, if some sources did not allow their typicality to be supported by mass material. One of the scribe books contains a more detailed than usual list of buildings in peasant households that were abandoned during the tragic events of the last decade of the 16th century. The analysis of these descriptions gave very demonstrative results. The vast majority of peasant households were very poor in terms of the composition of buildings: 49% consisted of only two buildings at all ("hut and cage", "hut and hay"). These documents are confirmed by another, original source - the Illuminated Chronicle of the 16th century. It is difficult to say why, but even the latest researchers consider the architectural background of the miniatures of this vault to be a borrowing from Byzantine sources. Research by A.V. Artsikhovgov in his time convincingly showed the Russian basis of the nature with which these miniatures were painted, the Russian character of things, everyday details, scenes. And only the dwelling is made dependent on foreign sources and the conventions of the "fantastic chamber writing of Russian icon painting." In fact, the dwelling, which is mostly made up of miniature scenes (although there are very realistic images not only of temples, but also of ordinary huts, cages), basically has the same Russian reality, the same Russian life, well known to the creators of miniatures. both according to the more ancient facial manuscripts that have not come down to us, and according to our own observations. And among these pictures there are few images of villages. The language of the miniatures of the Facial Vault is notable for its conventionality. The pictogram of dwellings is deciphered quite simply. The hut always has on the end wall, three windows and a door, a cage, two windows and a door. The walls are not lined with logs, they do not have the remnants of logs in the corners so typical for a log dwelling, and the windows and doors are smoothed, rounded, provided with curls for the sake of beauty, it is difficult to recognize them, but they are always there and always in a firmly established place, in the traditional number for each type of building. Villages, and even more so individual peasant households, are rarely depicted, since the main content of the chronicle remains the life of the feudal elites, the feudal city. But where we are talking about villages, they are, and the pictographic formula for them is built from two buildings, which, by signs, are easily identified as a hut and a crate. This was, in all likelihood, the real basis of the peasant household, its typical composition until the 16th century.
But for the 16th century, such courtyards are already becoming a relic. The economic recovery after the final liberation from the Tatar yoke, the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the general ordering of life in a centralized and strong state could not but affect the changes in the complex of peasant households. Previously, this process began in the northern regions, where social relations also favored it, where more severe nature required it, later we notice this in the central regions, but it is the 16th century that can be considered the beginning of those changes both in the composition and in the layout of the peasant household, which by the 19th century give us an ethnographic scheme of various types of Russian peasant households. All the main buildings of the peasant household were log cabins - huts, cages, senniks, mshaniks, stables, barns (although there are mentions of wattle barns). where in the winter they worked and worked (weaving, spinning, making various utensils, tools), here in the cold, cattle also found shelter. As a rule, there was one hut per yard, but there were peasant yards with two or even three huts, where large undivided families were accommodated. Apparently, already in the 16th century, two main types of peasant dwellings were distinguished in the northern regions; having underground. In such cellars they could keep livestock, store supplies. In the central and southern regions, ground huts still continue to exist, the floor of which was laid at ground level, and, possibly, was earthen. But the tradition was not yet established. Ground huts are mentioned in documents up to Arkhangelsk, and huts in the basement of rich peasants were also placed in the central regions. Often here they were called upper rooms.
According to documentary records of dwellings of the 16th century, we know rare cases of mentioning the passage as part of peasant households. But just in the 16th century, the vestibule began to be mentioned more and more often as an element, first of the urban, and then of the peasant dwelling, and the vestibule definitely served as a connecting link between the two buildings - the hut and the cage. But the change in the internal layout cannot be considered only formally. The appearance of the vestibule as a protective vestibule in front of the entrance to the hut, as well as the fact that now the firebox of the hut was turned inside the hut - all this greatly improved housing, made it warmer, more comfortable. The general upsurge of culture was also reflected in this improvement of the dwelling, although the 16th century was only the beginning of further changes, and the appearance of canopies even at the end of the 16th century became typical for peasant households in far from all regions of Russia. Like other elements of the dwelling, they first appeared in the northern regions. The second obligatory construction of the peasant household was the cage, i.e. a log building that served to store grain, clothes, and other property of peasants. But not all districts knew exactly the crate as the second utility room.
There is another building, which, apparently, performed the same function as the crate. This is a canopy. Of the other buildings of the peasant household, first of all, barns should be mentioned, since grain farming in the relatively damp climate of Central Russia is impossible without drying the sheaves. Sheeps are more often mentioned in documents relating to the northern regions. Cellars are often mentioned, but they are better known to us from urban materials. The "bayna" or "mylna" was just as obligatory in the northern and part of the central regions, but not everywhere. It is unlikely that the baths of that time were very different from those that can still be found in deep villages - a small log house, sometimes without a dressing room, in the corner - a stove - a heater, next to it - shelves or beds on which they bathe, in the corner - a barrel for water, which is heated by throwing red-hot stones into it, and all this is illuminated by a small window, the light from which drowns in the blackness of the sooty walls and ceilings. From above, such a structure often has an almost flat shed roof, covered with birch bark and turf. The tradition of washing in baths among Russian peasants was not universal. In other places they washed in ovens.
The 16th century is the time of the spread of buildings for livestock. They were placed separately, each under its own roof. In the northern regions, already at that time, one can notice a tendency towards two-story buildings of such buildings (shed, mshanik, and on them a hay barn, that is, a hay barn), which later led to the formation of huge two-story household yards (below - barns and pens for cattle, above - povit, a barn where hay, inventory is stored, a crate is also placed here). The feudal estate, according to the inventories and archaeological evidence, differed significantly from the peasant one. One of the main signs of any feudal court, in a city or in a village, was special watch, defensive towers - troughs. Such defensive towers in the 16th century were not only an expression of boyar arrogance, but also a necessary building in case of an attack by neighbors - landlords, restless free people. The overwhelming majority of these towers were log cabins, with several floors. The residential building of the feudal court was the upper room. These chambers did not always have skewed windows, and not all of them could have white stoves, but the very name of this building suggests that it was on a high basement.
The buildings were log-built, from selected wood, had good gable roofs, and on the tumblers they were of several types gable, four-slope and covered with a figured roof - barrels, etc. Close in composition and names of buildings to the boyar courts and the court of a wealthy citizen, and the Russian cities themselves in those days, as foreigners have repeatedly noted, were still very similar rather to the sum of rural estates than to a city in the modern sense. We know very little about the dwellings of ordinary artisans from documents; they did not often have to describe their poor inheritance in legal acts. Archaeologists do not have enough information about them either. There were entire settlements of artisans. But many of them lived in the yards of the monasteries, boyars, with rich townspeople in the courtyard. Based on the materials of the 16th century, it is difficult to distinguish them into a separate group. It can be thought that the yards of artisans of urban settlements were closer in terms of the composition of buildings to peasant yards, they did not have a rich choir. Stone residential buildings, known in Russia since the 14th century, continued to be a rarity in the 16th century. The few residential stone mansions of the 16th century that have come down to us amaze with the massiveness of the walls, the obligatory vaulted ceilings and the central pillar supporting the vault. Researchers of ancient architecture and folklore paint us a colorful picture of antiquity as a world of patterned, carved, ornate huts, towers, chambers with chiseled porches, with gilded domes. However, our data do not allow us to judge how richly and how the peasant huts and other buildings were decorated. Apparently, peasant huts were decorated very modestly, but some parts of the huts were decorated without fail; roof ridges, doors, gates, oven.
Comparative materials of the ethnography of the 19th century show that these adornments played, in addition to an aesthetic role, the role of amulets that protected the "entrances" from evil spirits, the roots of the semantics of such adornments date back to pagan ideas. But the dwellings of wealthy townspeople and feudal lords were decorated magnificently, intricately, colorfully with the hands and talent of the peasants. We also know little about the interior decoration of dwellings, although it is unlikely that the interior of peasant huts and craftsmen's houses was very different from what was typical for the peasantry in the 19th century. But no matter how fragmentary our information on some elements of the dwelling of the 16th century, we can still state a significant shift in this area of the culture of the Russian people in the 16th century, associated with the general processes of the historical development of the country.
clothing
We can restore the true picture of how our ancestors dressed in the 16th century in general terms only by synthesizing information from various sources - written, graphic, archaeological, museum, ethnographic. It is completely impossible to trace local differences in clothing from these sources, but they undoubtedly existed.
The main clothing in the 16th century was a shirt. Shirts were sewn from woolen fabric (sackcloth) and linen and hemp. In the 16th century, shirts were always worn with certain decorations, which were made of pearls, precious stones, gold and silver threads for the rich and noble, and red threads for the common people. The main element of such a set of jewelry is a necklace that closed the slit of the gate. The necklace could be sewn to the shirt, it could also be laid on, but wearing it should be considered mandatory outside the home. Decorations covered the ends of the sleeves and the bottom of the hem of the shirts. The shirts varied in length. Consequently, short shirts, the hem of which reached approximately to the knees, were worn by peasants and the urban poor. The rich and noble wore long shirts, shirts that reached to the heels. Pants were a mandatory element of men's clothing. But there was no single term for this clothing yet. Shoes of the 16th century were very diverse both in materials and in cut.
Archaeological excavations show a clear predominance of leather shoes woven from bast or birch bark. This means that bast shoes were not known to the population of Russia since antiquity and were rather additional shoes intended for special occasions.
For the 16th century, a certain social gradation can be outlined: boots - the shoes of the noble, the rich; boots, pistons - the shoes of the peasants and the masses of the townspeople. However, this gradation could not be clear, since soft boots were worn by both artisans and peasants. But the feudal lords are always in boots.
Men's headdresses were quite diverse, especially among the nobility. The most common among the population, peasants and townspeople, was a cone-shaped felt hat with a rounded top. The ruling feudal strata of the population, more associated with trade, seeking to emphasize their class isolation, borrowed a lot from other cultures. The custom of wearing a tafya, a small hat, spread widely among the boyars and the nobility. Such a hat was not removed even at home. And, leaving the house, they put on a high "throat" fur hat - a sign of boyar arrogance and dignity.
The nobility also wore other hats. If the difference in the main male attire between the class groups was mainly reduced to the quality of materials and decorations, then the difference in outerwear was very sharp, and, above all, in the number of clothes. The richer and nobler the person, the more clothes he wore. The very names of these clothes are not always clear to us, since they often reflect such features as the material, the method of fastening, which also coincides with the nomenclature of later peasant clothing, which is also very vague in terms of functionality. With the ruling strata, only fur coats, single-row coats and caftans were the same in name among the common people. But in terms of material and decorations, there could be no comparison. Among men's clothing, sundresses are also mentioned, the cut of which is hard to imagine, but it was a spacious long dress, also decorated with embroidery and trims. Of course, they dressed so luxuriously only during ceremonial exits, receptions and other solemn occasions.
As in a men's suit, the shirt was the main, and often the only clothing of women in the 16th century. But the shirts themselves were long, we do not know the cut of a women's shirt to the heels. The material from which women's shirts were sewn was linen. But there could also be woolen shirts. Women's shirts were necessarily decorated.
Of course, peasant women did not have expensive necklaces, but they could be replaced by embroidered ones, decorated with simple beads, small pearls, and brass stripes. Peasant women and ordinary townswomen probably wore ponevs, plakhty or similar clothes under other names. But in addition to belt clothes, as well as shirts, from the 16th century, some kind of maid clothes were issued.
We do not know anything about the shoes of ordinary women, but, most likely, they were identical to men's. We have very common ideas about women's headdresses of the 16th century. In the miniatures, women's heads are covered with robes (abrasions) - pieces of white fabric that cover their heads and fall over their shoulders over their clothes. The clothes of noble women were very different from the clothes of the common people, primarily in the abundance of dresses and their wealth. As for sundresses, even in the 17th century they remained predominantly men's clothing, and not women's. Talking about clothes, we are forced to note jewelry. Part of the jewelry has become an element of certain clothes. Belts served as one of the obligatory elements of clothing and at the same time decoration. It was impossible to go outside without a belt. XV-XVI centuries and later times can be considered a period when the role of metal jewelry sets is gradually fading away, although not in all forms. If archaeological data give us dozens of different types of neck, temple, forehead, hand jewelry, then by the 16th century there were relatively few of them: rings, bracelets (wrist), earrings, beads. But this does not mean that the former decorations have disappeared without a trace. They continued to exist in a highly modified form. These decorations become part of the clothing.
Food
Bread remained the main food in the 16th century. Baking and preparing other grain products and grain products in the cities of the 16th century was the occupation of large groups of artisans who specialized in the production of these foodstuffs for sale. Bread was baked from mixed rye and oatmeal, and also, probably, and only from oatmeal. Bread, kalachi, prosvir were baked from wheat flour. Noodles were made from flour, pancakes were baked and "bake" - rye fried cakes from sour dough. Pancakes were baked from rye flour, crackers were prepared. There is a very diverse assortment of pastry pies with poppy seeds, honey, porridge, turnips, cabbage, mushrooms, meat, etc. The listed products are far from exhausting the variety of bread products used in Russia in the 16th century.
A very common type of bread food was porridge (oatmeal, buckwheat, barley, millet), and kissels - pea and oatmeal. Grain also served as a raw material for the preparation of drinks: kvass, beer, vodka. The variety of garden and horticultural crops cultivated in the 16th century determined the variety of vegetables and fruits used for food: cabbage, cucumbers, onions, garlic, beets, carrots, turnips, radishes, horseradish, poppies, green peas, melons, various herbs for pickles (cherry, mint, cumin), apples, cherries, plums.
Mushrooms - boiled, dried, baked - played a significant role in nutrition. One of the main types of food, following in importance, after grain and vegetable food and livestock products in the 16th century, was fish food. For the 16th century, different ways of processing fish are known: salting, drying, drying. Very expressive sources depicting the variety of food in Russia in the 16th century are the canteens of the monasteries. An even greater variety of dishes is presented in Domostroy, where there is a special section "Books throughout the year, what food is served on the tables ... "
Thus, in the 16th century, the assortment of bread products was already very diverse. Successes in the development of agriculture, in particular horticulture and horticulture, have led to a significant enrichment and expansion of the range of plant foods in general. Along with meat and dairy food, fish food continued to play a very important role.
Rites
Folklore of the 16th century, like all the art of that time, lived by traditional forms and used artistic means developed earlier. Written memos that have come down to us from the 16th century testify that rituals, in which many traces of paganism have been preserved, were widespread in Russia, that epics, fairy tales, proverbs, songs were the main forms of verbal art.
Monuments of writing of the XVI century. buffoons are mentioned as people who amuse the people, jokers. They took part in weddings, played the role of friends, participated in funerals, especially in the final fun, told stories and sang songs, gave comic performances.
Fairy tales
In the XVI century. fairy tales were popular. From the 16th century few materials have been preserved that would allow one to recognize the fabulous repertoire of that time. We can only say that it included fairy tales. The German Erich Lassota, being in Kyiv in 1594, wrote down a fairy tale about a wonderful mirror. It tells about the fact that a mirror was built into one of the slabs of St. Sophia Cathedral, in which one could see what was happening far from this place. There were fairy tales about animals and everyday life.
Genres of traditional folklore were widely used at that time. 16th century - the time of great historical events, which left its mark on folk art. The themes of folklore works began to be updated, as heroes they included new social types and historical figures. He entered the fairy tales and the image of Ivan the Terrible. In one tale, Grozny is depicted as a shrewd ruler, close to the people, but severe in relation to the boyars. The tsar paid the peasant well for the turnips and bast shoes presented to him, but when the nobleman gave the tsar a good horse, the tsar unraveled the evil intent and gave him not a large estate, but a turnip that he received from the peasant. Another genre that was widely used in oral and written speech in the 16th century was the proverb. It was the genre that most vividly responded to historical events and social processes. The time of Ivan the Terrible and his struggle with the boyars later received a often satirical reflection, irony
they were directed against the boyars: "The times are shaky - take care of your hats", "Royal favors are sown in the boyar sieve", "The king strokes, and the boyars scratch".
Proverbs
Proverbs also give an assessment of everyday phenomena, in particular the position of a woman in the family, the power of parents over children. Many of these proverbs were created among backward and dark people, and they were influenced by the morality of churchmen. "A woman and a demon - they have one weight." But proverbs were also created, in which the life experience of the people is embodied: "The house rests on the wife."
Beliefs
Folklore of the 16th century many genres were widely used, including those that arose in ancient times and contain traces of ancient ideas, such as belief in the power of words and actions in conspiracies, belief in the existence of goblin, water, brownies, sorcerers, in beliefs, legends , which are stories about miracles, about meeting with evil spirits, about found treasures, deceived devils. For these genres in the XVI century. significant Christianization is already characteristic. Faith in the power of words and actions is now confirmed by a request for help to God, Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints. The power of Christian, religious ideas was great, they began to dominate over pagan ones. The characters of the legends, in addition to the goblin, mermaids and the devil, are also saints (Nikola, Ilya).
epics
Important changes have also taken place in the epics. The past - the subject of the depiction of epics - receives new illumination in them. So, during the period of the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms, epics about battles with the Tatars receive a new sound in connection with the rise of patriotic sentiments. Sometimes epics were modernized. Kalin Tsar is replaced by Mamai, and Ivan the Terrible appears instead of Prince Vladimir. The fight against the Tatars lived the epic epic. It absorbs new historical events, includes new heroes.
In addition to such changes, researchers of the epic also attribute the emergence of new epics to this time. In this century, epics were composed about Duke and Sukhman, about the arrival of Lithuanians, about Vavila and buffoons. The difference between all these epics is the wide development of the social theme and anti-boyar satire. The Duke is represented in the epic as a cowardly "young boyar" who does not dare to fight a snake, is afraid of Ilya Muromets, but amazes everyone with his wealth. Duke is a satirical image. The bylina about him is a satire on the Moscow boyars.
The epic about Sukhman, old in origin, is characterized by the strengthening in it of the negative interpretation of the images of the boyars, princes and Vladimir, who comes into conflict with the hero who does not reconcile with the prince. The epic about the arrival of the Lithuanians contains vivid traces of time. Two brothers Livikov from the land of Lithuania are plotting a raid on Moscow. There are two storylines in the epic: the abduction of Prince Roman and his struggle against the Lithuanians. The epic about Babyla and buffoons and their struggle with the king Dog, whose kingdom they destroy and burn, is a work of a special kind. It is allegorical and utopian, as it expresses the age-old dream of the masses of the people about a "just kingdom." The epic is distinguished by satire and a cheerful joke, which entered it along with the images of buffoons.
lore
New features acquire in the XVI century. and legends - oral prose stories about significant events and historical figures of the past. From the legends of the XVI century. there are, first of all, 2 groups of legends about Ivan the Terrible and Yermak.
1) They are full of great public resonance, they include stories connected with the campaign against Kazan, with the subjugation of Novgorod: they are patriotic in nature, they praise Ivan the Terrible, but they are clearly democratic in nature.
2) Compiled by Novgorodians and contains the condemnation of Grozny for cruelty. The struggle with Marfa Posadnitsa, whom he allegedly exiled or killed, is also attributed to him. The name of Ivan the Terrible is associated with quite a few legends about the places he visited, or about the churches that he built. Novgorod legends depict the executions of townspeople, which, however, is condemned not only by the people, but also by the saints. In one of the legends, the saint, taking the severed head of the executed man in his hands, pursues the king, and he runs away in fear. The legends about Yermak are of a local nature: there are Don, Ural, and Siberian legends about him. Each of them gives his image its own special interpretation.
1) In the Don legends, Yermak is portrayed as the founder of the Cossack army, protecting the Cossacks: he liberated the Don from foreigners: he himself came to the Don, having fled after the murder of the boyar. So in the Don legends, Yermak, often at odds with history, appears as a Cossack leader. There is a rich group of legends in which Ermak acts as the conqueror of Siberia. His trip to Siberia is motivated differently: either he was sent there by the tsar, or he himself went to Siberia to earn the tsar's forgiveness for the crimes he had committed. His death is also described in different ways: the Tatars attacked his army and killed the sleeping ones; Yermak drowned in the Irtysh in a heavy shell; he was betrayed by Esaul Koltso.
Songs
The unrest of the townspeople in Moscow (1547), the desire of the Cossacks for self-government, the royal decrees on a temporary ban on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another (1581), on bonded serfs (1597) - all this contributed to the growth of discontent among the masses, one of the forms whose protest became robbery. It was reflected in folklore in the so-called bandit or daring songs. The peasants fled not only from the landowners' estates, but also from the tsarist troops. Life in the "freedom" served as a condition that contributed to a more vivid expression of the age-old dreams of the masses of the masses of social liberation. The artistic form in which these dreams found a poetic embodiment was bandit songs. They only appeared at the end of the 16th century. The hero of these songs is a brave, daring good fellow, and therefore the songs themselves were popularly called "daring songs". They are notable for their sharp drama, the chanting of "will" and the image of a robber who hangs the boyars and the voivode. A classic example is the song "Don't make noise, you mother, green oak tree." Her hero rejects the demand of the royal servants to extradite his comrades.
In the XVI century. the genre of ballad songs is also formed - a small ethical narrative poetic form. This type of work, to which the Western - European term "ballad" is applied, is very peculiar. It is distinguished by a subtle characteristic of personal, family relationships of people. But it often includes historical motifs and heroes, but they are not interpreted in historical terms. The ballads have a clearly anti-feudal orientation (for example, the condemnation of the arbitrariness of the prince, the boyar in the ballad "Dmitry and Domna", where the prince brutally cracks down on the girl who rejected his hand), they often develop severe parental authority, family despotism. Although the criminal in ballads is usually not
punished, but the moral victory is always on the side of ordinary people. The heroes of ballads are often kings and queens, princes and princesses, their fate is connected with the fate of ordinary peasants, servants, whose images are interpreted as positive. A characteristic feature in ballads is an anti-clerical orientation (for example, "Churilia - abbess", "Prince and old women", in which representatives of the clergy play a negative role).
The ballads "Dmitry and Domna", "Prince Mikhailo", "Prince Roman lost his wife" are among the ballads that arose in the 16th century. In the first, a girl, protesting against a forced marriage, takes her own life. In other versions, her fiancé Prince Dimitri beats her to death. In the ballad "Prince Mikhailo" the mother-in-law destroys her daughter-in-law. A deeply dramatic ballad about Prince Roman and his wife. Having killed her, he hides it from his daughter. The works of the ballad genre are emotionally intense, and the plots are tragic in nature: the positive hero dies, evil, unlike bylinas and fairy tales, is usually not punished. The ideological and moral content in them is revealed through the positive hero, who, although he perishes, wins a moral victory. Despite the popularity in the XVI century. epics, fairy tales, proverbs, ballads, the most characteristic of the folklore of this time were historical songs. Having originated earlier, they became the most important genre in this century, since their plots reflected the events of the time that attracted general attention, and the heyday of this genre in the 16th century. It was due to a number of factors: the rise of the national creation of the masses and the deepening of their historical thinking; the completion of the unification of Russian lands; the aggravation of social conflicts between the peasantry and the local nobility as a result of the attachment of the former to the land. Historical songs are divided into 2 main cycles associated with the names of Ivan the Terrible and Yermak.
Songs about Ivan the Terrible include stories about the capture of Kazan, the fight against the Crimean Tatars, the defense of Pskov, the personal life of the tsar: the anger of the Terrible at his son, the death of the tsar himself. Songs about Yermak - stories about Yermak and the Cossacks, the march of the barren near Kazan, the robbery campaign against the Volga and the murder of the tsar's ambassador by the Cossacks, the capture of Kazan by Yermak, meetings with Grozny and being in Turkish captivity. The raids of the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey on Moscow in 1571-72 also found a response in the songs. and the defense of Pskov from the troops of Bathory in 1581-82. the song "Raid of the Tatars" and the song "Siege of Pskov".
Great historical events and important social processes of the 16th century. determined the deep connection of songs with living reality, reduced the elements of conventionality in the narrative and contributed to a broad reflection of the phenomena and everyday details characteristic of the time.
Russian Civilization
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Peasant's house of the 16th century
House of a poor peasant
House of a prosperous peasant
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Traditional Slavic pagan holidays are associated with nature and the events taking place in it, they contain and conceal a deep sacred essence and meaning. The rites that our great ancestors-ancestors once performed in the old days are designed to ensure peaceful coexistence and harmony with Mother Nature, a connection with our Native Slavic Gods. The Slavic kologod is divided by four seasons (winter, spring, summer, autumn), in each of which great holidays are specially celebrated: 2 solstices (solstice) in winter and summer - the time when the Sun is reborn: the old Sun fades away, but a new one takes its place - nascent, young and 2 equinoxes (spring and autumn). The sun has long been especially revered by the Slavs as a symbol and source of life on earth, giving warmth and light to all living things. And this happens every year, constantly, along an uninterrupted stake (circle), in the form of which the ancient Slavs represented our Universe.
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Each Slavic holiday is a special ritual action dedicated to the veneration of a particular Deity of the Slavic pantheon or events occurring in nature at different times. As a rule, Slavic holidays are accompanied by cheerful and wide folk festivals, songs, round dances and various fortune-telling, youth gatherings and brides' bridesmaids. But there are also such days in the Slavic kologod where there is no place for fun - these are the days of honoring the deceased relatives and close people, as well as holidays where evil spirits and deities were revered. At some festivities, masks and masks (skins of wild animals) were obligatory attributes, in which people dressed up so that the evil spirits would not recognize.
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January (Sechen, Chill) February (Lute, Snezhen) March (Berezol, Dry) April (Flower, Queten) May (Traven) June (Fresen, Cherven)
July (Lipen) August (Serpen, Zhniven) September (Veresen, Ryuen) October (Leaf fall, Yellow) November (Breast) December (Stuzhen)
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Russian Winter
After the Christmas holiday, an amazing time begins - Christmas time, the girls were going to tell fortunes. And on the street there was a cheerful mess - the children went caroling. After the baptism, the fun subsided, but not for long. Before Great Lent, there is a great holiday: Wide Maslenitsa! Seeing off winter has been celebrated since pagan times. The main dish on the table is golden pancakes: a symbol of the sun.
Night divination. Christmas time.
Carols Shrovetide
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The first Christians were Jews and did not celebrate Christmas (according to Jewish doctrine, the birth of a person is “the beginning of sorrows and pains.” Therefore, in the early years of Christianity, no one was interested in the date of the birth of Christ. Much more important for the first Christians from a doctrinal point of view was the feast of the Resurrection of Christ, which is now known as Easter.The ancient Christian feast of the Epiphany on January 6 ideologically combined both Christmas and the Epiphany of the Lord, which later became different holidays.
Nativity
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As for Great Lent, it has a missionary origin. These 40 days were not fasted at first by Christians, but by pagans - those pagans who wanted to be baptized. And now a person is preparing for Baptism ... This is not just like that, in between times he ran into the temple, was baptized, and ran on about his business. Adults were baptized then. There were still few Christian families, so children were not baptized - practically they were not baptized; in Christian families they were baptized, but the majority were adults who had already consciously come to Christ.
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SPRING, SPRING COME RED. COME RED, BRING GOOD! So in Russian villages, climbing a hill, women called spring. She will come - prepare a plow and a harrow, it's time to plow the land. After all, work in the field is the main business of the peasant. "Spring day feeds the year."
Spring is red
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The biggest Orthodox holiday is in the spring. Easter, the bright Resurrection of Christ! This holiday signifies the victory of life over death. Prepared tables with Easter decorations consecrated in the church. Finally, it was possible to eat plenty after Lent, which lasted for seven whole weeks.
Children rolling Easter eggs.
At work.
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the holiday of the resurrection of the dead and the last day of the power and power of the evil Navi Gods before the coming of Spring. For Orthodox Christians, this date was the day of St. Eudoxia, who led the coming of Spring. With the onset of March, the Slavs begin ritual visits to graves with the offering of trebs. On this day, long-dead people are brought into the water, saying:
"Shine, shine, Sunshine! I'll give you an egg, Like a chicken lays in an oak forest, Take it to paradise, May all souls be happy."
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On March 9, the second Calls of Spring are held (performed from the tops of the hills, from which the snow has already begun to melt, popularly called "Yarilin bald patches." According to Slavic beliefs, on this day forty birds fly from Bright Iriy (that's why this holiday is called Magpies), marking the approach of the Virgin of Spring, on whose field the birds land first, the Gods will send special luck and a good harvest this year.
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For Orthodox Christians, this date was the day of the Forty Martyrs. The people said: "Forty birds fly to the Forty Martyrs, forty birds make their way to Russia", "On the Forty Martyrs - the arrival of larks: how many thawed patches, so many larks." On this day, the housewives baked “larks” from unleavened dough, with which the Calls were made. At the same time, it was believed that the full force of the spring warmth will appear only after forty days. In some houses, forty "nuts" were baked from rye and oat flour, and then for forty days they threw them one by one into the street, thus "paying off" from Frost.
On the Larks day and night are compared. Winter ends, spring begins.
"Larks, larks! Fly to us, Bring us a warm summer! We are tired of winter, Ate all our bread, Killed all the cattle."
"Spring, red spring Come, spring, with joy, With joy, with great mercy: With great flax, With deep roots, With great bread."
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Summer worries and holidays
Here comes the red summer! The air flows from aromas: herbal, floral, woody. Hard-working bees are buzzing... Fresh honey is as golden as the sun. And sweet!
On Semik, the girls decorated a young birch, led round dances. And most importantly, they let out wreaths: if it floats, the girl will be married, if she drowns, there will be trouble.
The appearance of the vestibule as a protective vestibule in front of the entrance to the hut, as well as the fact that now the firebox of the hut was turned inside the hut , made it warmer The appearance of canopies even at the end of the 16th century became typical for peasant households in far from all regions of Russia
Drawing a conclusion about the dwellings of the peasants, we can say that the 16th century is the time of the spread of buildings for livestock. They were placed separately, each under its own roof. In the northern regions, already at that time, one can notice a tendency towards two-story buildings of such buildings (shed, mshanik, and on them a hay barn, that is, a hay barn), which later led to the formation of huge two-story household yards (below - barns and pens for cattle, above - povit, a barn where hay, inventory is stored, a crate is also placed here).
The basis of nutrition was cereals - rye, wheat, oats, millet. Bread and pies were baked from rye (daily) and wheat (on holidays) flour. Kissels were prepared from oats. Many vegetables were eaten - cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes, cucumbers, turnips
Meat dishes were cooked in small quantities on holidays. A more frequent product on the table was fish. Prosperous peasants had garden trees that gave them apples, plums, cherries, and pears. In the northern regions of the country, peasants gathered cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries; in the central regions - strawberries. Mushrooms and hazelnuts were also used as food.
The Orthodox Church allowed one person to marry no more than three times. (The fourth marriage was strictly forbidden) The solemn wedding ceremony was performed, usually, only at the first marriage. Weddings, as a rule, took place in autumn and winter - when there was no agricultural work. Divorce was very difficult. A husband could divorce his wife in case of her infidelity, and communication with strangers outside the home without the permission of the spouse was equated to treason
The working day in the family began early. Ordinary people had two obligatory meals - lunch and dinner. At noon, production activity was interrupted. After dinner, according to the old Russian habit, there followed a long rest, sleep (which was very striking for foreigners). then work began again until supper. With the end of daylight, everyone went to sleep.
After the Christmas holiday, an amazing time begins - Christmas time, the girls were going to tell fortunes. And on the street there was a cheerful mess - the children went caroling. Christmas time After baptism, the fun subsided, but not for long. Before the Great Lent - a great holiday: Wide Maslenitsa! Seeing off winter has been celebrated since pagan times. In Elikim Shirokaya The main dish on the table is golden pancakes: a symbol of the sun. Pancake week
It is characterized by an increase in the literacy of the population of 15% of the peasants; Primers, alphabets, grammars and other educational literature were printed. Handwritten traditions have also been preserved. “White stoves” appear instead of “smoky ones” (peasants still have “smoky stoves” until the 19th century) In the 17th century, Western European experience was assimilated From the 17th century, marriages had to be blessed by the church without fail. The appearance of metal utensils (samovar) Literature of the 17th century is largely freed from religious content. There are no longer various kinds of "journeys" to holy places, holy teachings, even compositions like "Domostroya
In the difficult conditions of the Middle Ages, the culture of the XVI-XVII centuries. achieved great success in various fields. There has been an increase in literacy among various segments of the population. Primers, alphabets, grammars and other educational literature were printed. Books containing various scientific and practical information began to be published. There was an accumulation of natural science knowledge, manuals on mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, medicine, and agriculture were issued. Increased interest in history. New genres appear in Russian literature: satirical tales, biographies, poems, foreign literature is translated. In architecture, there is a departure from strict church rules, the traditions of ancient Russian architecture are being revived: zakomary, arcade belt, stone carving. The main type of painting continued to be icon painting. For the first time in Russian painting, the portrait genre appears.
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