In the dictionary of the Russian language by S.I. Ozhegov, the term “knowledge” is deciphered as “comprehension of reality by consciousness.” The Great Soviet Encyclopedia deciphers this term as “a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its true reflection in the human mind.”
The desire of modern science for absolute truth is quite obvious. The only question is whether this goal is achievable. The result of knowledge of reality, according to TSB, should be verified by practice, a reflection of reality of the same kind as the knowledge being tested. The reflection of the knowledge of reality in consciousness, which is verified by the same consciousness through the reflection of reality, which constitutes the essence of practice, cannot claim absolute reliability. In this case, truth can only be relative. The degree of reliability is determined both by the presence of a systematic error in the reflection of reality by consciousness, and by the characteristics of reality that constitute the essence of practice.
Newton's physics was quite consistent with practice, so Einstein's theory of relativity was initially perceived as a game of imagination. But this did not prevent it from remaining knowledge, which later made it possible to solve a number of problems and find its confirmation in practice. Friedman in 1922, using the equations of the theory of Relativity, predicted the nonstationarity of the Universe, and in 1929 Hubble discovered a red shift in the emission spectra of stellar systems, which served as the basis for the conclusion about the expansion of the Universe. A theory was created of the formation of the Universe from superdense matter as a result of a relict explosion. The "hot" model of the Universe has been verified by many observations. But all this does not guarantee its reliability. The observational results can be explained if we accept the model of the Universe in the form of a spherical wave according to the Unified Field Theory (ETP-1990,91,92,93). In addition, a number of phenomena have been discovered that cannot be explained by the theory of a “hot” Universe. Nevertheless, science is in no hurry to part with the model of the “hot” Universe.
From these examples it is clear that the truth of knowledge is always relative. In the TSB formulation, knowledge cannot exist.
In S.I. Ozhegov’s interpretation, “knowledge” appears as a multivariate structure formed by human consciousness, which is based on all types of perception of reality. The characteristic of knowledge corresponds to the quality of perception and is its derivative. In the process of cognition of an object, consciousness records the perceptions of the senses and other, supersensible perceptions. Information received from other persons is also recorded by the consciousness through the senses in the form of mental images. In the process of cognition, inference, the establishment of connections between related objects of cognition, and the mental construction of a generalized image of the object of cognition are essential. As a result of the process of cognition, true or false knowledge arises, but absolute Knowledge never arises .
Absolute Knowledge can arise only on the basis of an infinitely large number of information perceptions for each object of knowledge. Absolute Knowledge can be possessed by a non-embodied Mind if its age is equal to infinity . Only in this case will he receive information from an infinitely distant point in space.
False knowledge that has not stood the test of practice can be rejected only if the reasons that gave rise to false knowledge are reliably established. Such reasons may be an inadequate reflection of reality by consciousness due to distortion of sensory information or an erroneous conclusion, which is based on the establishment of connections between objects of knowledge of various kinds. Otherwise, knowledge cannot be recognized as false.
A person who has the gift of supersensible perception sees the aura of people. His knowledge cannot be verified by the practice of people who do not have such abilities. Nevertheless, this knowledge remains true, although to a certain extent individual.
Knowledge that has not stood the test of practice, the falsity of which has not been reliably established, should be transferred to the category of irrelevant knowledge. When the conditions for actualization arise, such knowledge will be transferred to the category of true and included in the logical chains of the formation of new knowledge.
The development of Earthly civilization is inherently a process of cognition, recording and transfer of knowledge from person to person, from generation to generation, from one social formation to another, from a civilization of one period to a civilization of another period. The central question that every person tries to find an answer to is the question of the meaning of life. Why is a person born, what is the essence of his “I”, what is a person’s consciousness, how are the spiritual and material connected to each other in the human body, what is the Universe and what role is assigned to a person in it, what happens to the spiritual “I” after death, what should a person do to get rid of suffering in life and find eternal bliss after death, what should one do when seeing the suffering of other people? History has preserved many documents of religious and philosophical content, testifying to achievements in this field of knowledge.
The difficulty of updating knowledge about the soul and body lies in the fact that it relates to the interaction of the material world of different dimensions and cannot be verified by means of sensory perception of the human body, even using known instrumental methods. Supersensible perception, which every person is endowed with, can record the interaction of matter of different dimensions. But these abilities are suppressed by the technogenic way of life of people and the low level of development of the spiritual principle that makes up the “I” of a person. The development of supersensible perception abilities can lead to the actualization of knowledge that has its roots in ancient times.
Supersensible perception underlies many religious and philosophical systems. An integral part of some of them is Yoga, the science of the interaction of the spiritual and material, of the interaction of the Mind of different dimensions that exists in man. Observations and experiments carried out by numerous supporters of this direction of philosophical thought over thousands of years have made it possible to create a number of harmonious systems for the spiritual and physical improvement of man. Without having a scientific basis that would allow the creation of a scientific theory of Yoga, it nevertheless gives precise speculative explanations that rely only on observations that include supersensible perception. Essentially we can talk about the empirical theory of Yoga. There is reason to believe that much of the key information that makes up the actual theory of Yoga was obtained by supersensible methods through its practice. And the Supreme Intelligence of the Incarnation System played a major role here.
The history of Yoga is inextricably linked with the history of Earthly civilization in its highest manifestation. The most ancient highly developed civilization, information about which has reached our time, existed in the Indian Ocean region on a continent called Lemuria. The reasons for the death (30-50 thousand years ago) of civilization, which was in its heyday, are unknown. It is possible that this reason was a gravitational impact. Hatha yoga, aimed at improving the human physical body and the ability to control it, according to some sources, has roots precisely in this civilization.
Another ancient civilization of Atlantis, which also died for an unknown reason about 12 thousand years ago, gave rise to Laya Yoga, aimed at improving the control of the human will.
We have received information about the ancient sacred texts, the Vedas, which are the basis of the philosophy of Hinduism, which arose in India, and the book I Ching (Book of Changes), which is the basis of the philosophy of Taoism, which arose in China. The writing of both texts dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. The Book of Vles, which gave rise to the religious philosophy of the Slavs, also has common roots with the Vedas.
The philosophical systems of Hinduism and Taoism developed in parallel in the geographically closest nationalities. Their relatedness is evident from the fact that they operate with many similar concepts. A number of these concepts can definitely be identified with the concepts of the ETP. In Hinduism, there is the concept of Brahman - the impersonal spiritual principle from which the entire real world arose. In Taoism, this concept corresponds to Tao - eternal, formless, inaccessible to the senses, giving origin and form to everything in the Universe. According to the ETP, this is Vacuum. The concept of Atman in Hinduism is associated with the world soul and is inextricably linked with the concept of Brahman. According to the ETP, this is a spherical wave of the Vacuum neutrino of the Universe. The world soul of the Universe is Paraatma, and the human soul, which has the same nature as the world soul, is Jivatma. Obviously, these concepts correspond to the concepts of ETP - neutrino measurements L Sun and L b .
The philosophical concept of Taoism "Tao-te-qi" when fulfilling the principle of "wu-wei" can be deciphered as the accumulation of vital energy "qi" while maintaining undisturbed "wu-wei" of the natural quality "de" to follow the universal course of development established by Tao. According to the ETP, this philosophical thought can be formulated as follows: to develop the Mind L 10 (qi) of the organism, not allowing activity (wu-wei), which could lead to the disappearance of the traces of the future formed earlier in the Universe (Tao), resulting in a known future existence ( de) will become unknown.
The philosophy of Buddhism, which has no roots in antiquity, is extremely interesting. Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century BC. The founder of Buddhism is the real person Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha. Central to the philosophy of Buddhism is the concept of "Nirvana", which extends both to the region of space in the Universe where the soul after death will exist in a state of complete peace and bliss, and to the state of complete peace and bliss achieved by a person as a result of the practice of the eightfold path, eight steps on the path to achieving nirvana. The concept of "Nirvana" corresponds to the concept of "Intellectual Sphere".
The meaning of human existence and the way to achieve the goal are formulated in the Jighanikaya (Collection of Great Teachings): “So, with concentrated thought - pure, clear, untainted, devoid of impurity, flexible, ready for action, steadfast, unshakable - he directs and turns the thought towards the creation of the body ", consisting of the mind. From this (his body) he creates another body, having a form, consisting of the mind, endowed with all the large parts, without knowing any damage to the vital faculties."
This piece of information can hardly be considered a brilliant guess. Without relying on a basic theory, it accurately reflects the main purpose of the existence of the Human Mind in the embodied state. According to the ETP, RF neutrinos embodied in DNA b , in the process of thinking, generates matter and the Mind of dimension L 10, which forms the human body from matter of dimension L 00 and exists in it against the background of matter of dimension L 20. From this Mind, RF creates, through selection, its own Intellectual sphere, its nirvana. Jighanikae provides additional information that the Intellectual Sphere consists of organized structural communities of L 10 neutrinos that correspond to the main parts of the human body. In other words, the Mind of the body has its own representation, which is related in frequency characteristics to the Mind in the Intellectual sphere.
According to Buddhist ideas, the souls of people after death accumulate in Paradise (Earth in dimension L 01) and only from there are transferred to Nirvana of the Universe.
Representatives of Buddhism believed that information can come to a practitioner of concentration and meditation instantly, in the form of insight. Knowledge can also be instantly transferred from Teacher to student. Apparently, this method of transmitting information is the main one when RF communicates in a disembodied state. When it is implemented, there is an exchange of neutrinos of the Mind of the Intellectual spheres, which have the corresponding information. In the embodied state, such an exchange is difficult due to the high density of flows of the Mind of the dimensions of the Intellectual Sphere, but with a certain mood it is possible.
The large amount of specialized knowledge contained in the philosophy of Buddhism gives reason to believe that the Buddha is a representative of the Supreme Mind, who performed a missionary function. A similar function was performed by Jesus Christ, whose sermons became the basis of Christianity. When creating the Islamic religion, the Supreme Intelligence used Mohammed's RF, ordinary embodied neutrinos and supersensible channels to transmit the information contained in the Koran. In the same way, the Revelation, an information block about the Universe and the future of the Earth and the Solar system, was shown and dictated to John the Theologian.
Despite the wide variety of religious and philosophical teachings, trends and sects, they all set the main goal of improving the soul, and the methods of achievement are based on universal principles of behavior, which are reflected in the 10 commandments of Jesus Christ, pronounced by him in the Sermon on the Mount, contained in five commandments (u-tse) of the Taoists, eight conditions (steps) of the Buddhists. Such ancient relics as the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the Muslim Koran, and the Christian Bible are devoted to the problem of organizing an optimal way of life for people.
The performance of religious rituals and prayerful attitudes reduce sensory perception and create conditions for awareness of the separation of one’s own “I” from the body. In this state, the ability of supersensible perception in the form of images initiated by the Mind of the Embodiment System through the medium of Entities increases. The practice of Yoga, honed over many millennia, allows you to more fully use the capabilities of controlling your body and achieve communication with the Mind of the Embodiment System. At the limit, Yoga allows one to achieve a state called the “Cloud of Dharma”, corresponding to the Buddhist “nirvana”, when the state of the embodied RF by his will and practice of Yoga is brought to the state of the disembodied RF, who is in peace and bliss.
Classical Yoga is based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, a summary of instructions on the theory and practice of Yoga. The writing of the Yoga Sutras dates back to the 2nd century BC. due to the identification of the author with the grammarian Patanjali, who lived during this period. The source of the Yoga Sutras is unknown. It is impossible to establish whether this was a summary recording of the Teacher’s instructions or whether Patanjali was in a hurry to record his own supersensible information. In both cases, the information will be presented in the images and concepts of that time. But analysis of the content of this information allows us to conclude that it could only be received from the Higher Mind of the Incarnation System.
The summary recording of the Yoga Sutras makes it difficult to understand their meaning. In the 4th century AD Vyasa wrote a commentary on Patanjali’s “Yoga Sutras” - “Vyasa-bhasya”, which allows us to perceive their deep meaning in the images and concepts of the author of the commentary. For this reason, Hinduism is considered to be the basic philosophy of the Yoga Sutras, and the basic text is the Upanishads (Teacher's instructions), which have roots in the sacred texts of the Veda. Further development of the theory of Yoga also took place on these philosophical traditions. The wisdom of the ancients, which found literary embodiment in the epics of Hinduism, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita, had a significant influence on the formation of the practice of Yoga.
An analytical study of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras made it possible to identify a large number of concepts that are absent in the scientific literature, but have analogues in the ETP. Below is a comparison of the concepts of classical Yoga and ETP.
Akasha-A special substance that interfaces with material bodies, penetrating them.
Vacuum.
Buddhi-An ontological prerequisite for awareness, a carrier of an information block that has an “illuminating essence.”
RF Gravitational Wave Modulated by Cognitive Image, Cause of Discrete RF Memory States.
Guna-A trimodal operational cause of consciousness, which also determines its qualitative characteristics.
Virtual Mind Dimension System L 10 having an ideology of development that exists in the cosmos of human consciousness.
Tao-The universal law of dynamics of the real world.
Pendulum displacements of wave inhomogeneities of Vacuum in the process of their interaction in gravitational waves of the Universe, the thinking process of the Mind of the Universe.
Dharma-A qualitatively defined state of consciousness.
An image that exists in the cosmos of consciousness in the form of inhomogeneities in the distribution of the virtual Mind.
Dhyana-Contemplation, focusing of homogeneous states of consciousness in one place.
RF activity in which only homogeneous states are retrieved from memory.
Ishvara-The one in whom the highest limit of power is realized, who has no equal, is the Supreme Teacher.
God of the Universe, neutrino dimensions L Sun.
Kalpa-World period, day of Brahma.
Period of the gravitational cycle.
Karma-The cause-and-effect relationship of events that shapes the future.
The movement of particles in their tracks in the gravitational waves of Vacuum, which predetermines future events.
Pradhana-The visible state of consciousness, its quality, determined by the ratio of the subordination of the gunas in a given situation.
Priority ideology of the Mind system of different dimensions from L 10-7 before L 10-1, acting in the field of consciousness.
Purusha (atman)-Pure energy of consciousness, similar to Ishvara, which reflects the content of Buddhi.
Neutrino of the Human Mind (RF), embodied in DNA b .
Rajas-The modality of consciousness that characterizes its activity is stimulated by the Purusha and reflects its activity.
The mind operating in the field of consciousness, the bearer of the RF ideology, as a rule, has an intermediate dimension, higher L 10-7, but lower L 10-3. The mind of this dimension has strong connections with subsystem C - the Embodiment System.
Tamas-The modality of consciousness, which characterizes its inertia, the desire for immutability, suppresses the function of activity and cognition.
The mind, operating in the field of consciousness, which represents the interests of the organism, has, as a rule, a dimension from L 10-3 before L 10-1 . The mind of this dimension is the main carrier of the ideology of subsystem C - Incarnation systems
Sattva-The modality of consciousness, characterizing its clarity, has the property of being an object for another, is the cause of buddhi, and stimulates the function of cognition.
The mind operating in the field of consciousness, the bearer of the ideology of the C + subsystem of the Embodiment System, has a dimension L 10-7. The images of consciousness containing this Mind are created by the Entity, which is under the control of the Supreme Mind, in order to be perceived by the RF and serve to fulfill its leading function.
Sanskars-Formative factors, substantive causes of qualitatively defined states of consciousness.
Field images on a large or small interface screen, which are the cause of a certain structure of the cosmos in which the activity of consciousness unfolds, determining the shape of the structural parts of consciousness.
Chakra- Body locus.
Dimension Mind L 10 organized into a regional governing body structure.
Manas- Intelligence.
The property of the RF Intellectual Sphere to reproduce an image of thought.
Classical Yoga operates with concepts containing qualitative characteristics. With such a definition of the concept, ambiguity of formulation arises. The manifestation of certain qualities depends on the situation. Therefore, each concept acquires a whole complex of qualities that make it difficult to imagine and perceive their images. Vyasa's commentary does not remove this difficulty. "Vyasa-bhasya" bears the imprint of subjective perception, which is based on the images of the philosophical systems of that time. The analysis of the Yoga Sutras and Vyasa-bhashya turns into a very difficult task, the solution of which requires not only to clarify the content of the Yoga Sutras, but also to clarify the content of Vyasa-bhashya. In this case, it is necessary to identify and establish the reasons for the emergence of the false knowledge contained in them. Therefore, we will limit our task to only explaining the knowledge contained in the “Yoga Sutras,” translated from Sanskrit by E. P. Ostrovskaya and V. I. Rudy (see: Classical Yoga. M.: Nauka, 1992). Some semantic additions to the author's text, enclosed in square brackets that distort its meaning or are not of fundamental importance, are excluded from the translation. At the same time, it should be noted that Vyasa-bhashya contains true knowledge and helps to reveal the content of the Yoga Sutras.
Even before the emergence of science, in the process of their daily practical activities, people received the knowledge they needed about the properties and characteristics of objects and phenomena. Knowledge– this is a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its true reflection in the human mind. The main function of knowledge is to generalize disparate ideas about the laws of nature, society and thinking.
Knowledge can be relative or absolute.
Relative knowledge is a reflection of reality with some incomplete match between the sample and the object.
Absolute knowledge - this is a complete, exhaustive reproduction of generalized ideas about an object, which ensure an absolute match between the sample and the object.
The movement of human thought from ignorance to knowledge is called cognition. Its basis is the reflection of objective reality in the consciousness of a person in the process of his practical (industrial, social and scientific) activities. Consequently, human cognitive activity is caused by practice and is aimed at practical mastery of reality. This process is endless, since the dialectic of knowledge is expressed in the contradiction between the limitless complexity of objective reality and the limitations of our knowledge.
The main goal of knowledge is the achievement of true knowledge, which is realized in the form of theoretical provisions and conclusions, laws and teachings, confirmed by practice and existing objectively, independently of us.
There are two types of knowledge: sensory (ordinary) and scientific (rational). Sensory cognition is a consequence of the direct connection of man with the environment. Human knowledge of the world and interaction with it is carried out thanks to the functioning of the organs of vision, hearing, touch, and taste. Sensory cognition appears in 3 forms, which are the stages of cognition: sensation, perception, representation (imagination).
Feeling - this is the reflection by the human brain of the properties of objects or phenomena of the objective world that are perceived by his senses. Sensations are the source of all knowledge, but they provide knowledge of the individual properties of objects, and a person deals not only with individual properties, but also with the object as a whole, with the totality of properties.
The contradiction between sensation and activity is resolved by the emergence of a higher form of sensory knowledge - perception.
Perception - this is a reflection by the human brain of the properties of objects or phenomena in general, perceived by his senses at some period of time, and gives the primary sensory image of the object or phenomenon. Perception is a reflection, a copy, an image of a set of properties, and not of an individual of them. An object is reflected in the human brain. Perception gives knowledge of objects, things, and not properties. But perception is also limited. It gives knowledge only when the perceived object is present, exists now. But human activity also requires knowledge about those objects that were perceived in the past or may be perceived (repeated) in the future.
The highest form of sensory knowledge is representation. Performance- this is a secondary image of an object or phenomenon that at a given moment in time does not affect the human senses, but necessarily acted previously. This is reproduction in the human brain by connecting them into an integral system. A representation can reproduce the past, images of those objects that once acted on the senses - as if to put it again before us. Representation can provide knowledge of the future (for example, an idea of something based on what we have read, heard, etc.).
Thus, with the help of sensory knowledge, we acquire the necessary knowledge about the properties and characteristics of things and phenomena that we encounter in our daily practical activities.
Scientific (rational) knowledge – this is an indirect and generalized reflection in the human brain of essential properties, causal relationships and natural connections between objects and phenomena. Scientific knowledge is not separated by an insurmountable line from the sensory (ordinary), since it represents its further improvement and development. It complements and advances sensory cognition, promotes awareness of the essence of ongoing processes, and reveals the patterns of their development.
Scientific knowledge is a consciously carried out cognitive activity, which is based on an indirect and generalized reflection of the properties and relationships of objects and phenomena in their contradiction and development. This is a purposeful process.
Scientific knowledge is associated with a sensory (everyday) relationship of continuity, which means:
it has a common goal - to provide objective, correct knowledge about reality;
scientific knowledge arises on the basis of the common sense of sensory knowledge, i.e. Both sensory and scientific knowledge are based on the principle of realism.
Scientific knowledge subjects rational criticism to the initial positions of sensory knowledge, using specific and theoretical research methods for this purpose, and thereby achieves progress in understanding and explaining the phenomena being studied.
Scientific knowledge differs from sensory (ordinary) knowledge in its systematicity and consistency both in the process of searching for new knowledge and in organizing all found, available knowledge. It is characterized by consistency, which is expressed in its logical construction, the exclusion of contradictions between its individual elements. Therefore, scientific knowledge is characterized by specific methods of constructing, systematizing and substantiating knowledge.
Scientific knowledge has a number of characteristics:
focus on knowledge production;
a clear identification of the subject of knowledge, which is associated with the fragmentation of the reality under study, the identification of its various structural levels;
use of specialized tools;
regulation by a certain set of methods and other types of normative knowledge (principles, ideals and norms, style of scientific thinking);
the presence of a specialized language that constantly adapts to the specifics of cognitive actions.
In scientific knowledge there are two levels:
empirical;
theoretical.
Empirically facts are collected (recorded events, phenomena, properties, relationships), statistical data is obtained based on observations, measurements, experiments and their classification.
Theoretical level knowledge is characterized by the comparison, construction, and development of scientific hypotheses and theories, the formulation of laws and the derivation of logical consequences from them for the application of theoretical knowledge in practice.
Test on the topic: “Scientific knowledge”, grade 10. Option 1. Part A.
1. The result of knowledge of reality, proven by practice, its correct reflection in human thinking is called:
2 . Complete, exhaustive knowledge is called:
B. The main feature of social cognition is the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition.
4. The main method of philosophical knowledge is:
a) scientific research; b) religion; c) art; d) theoretical thinking.
5. The first work on social science is considered to be the philosophical dialogue “The State”, the author of which is: a) Homer; b) Plato; c) Aristotle; d) Herodotus.
6.Are judgments about cognition correct:
A. This is a set of processes, procedures and methods for acquiring knowledge about the phenomena and patterns of the objective world.
B. False knowledge is a cost of the cognition process.
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
7. Rational knowledge, as opposed to sensory:
a) gives true knowledge about the subject; b) relies on sensations;
c) expands ideas about the world; d) uses logical reasoning.
8. Insert the word missing in the diagram “Forms of rational knowledge”:
a) concepts;b) _____________; c) inferences.
9. Are judgments about truth true:
A. There are eternal, unchanging truths.
B. The main criterion of truth is practice
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
10. Are the judgments about inorganic modernization correct:
A. Such modernization begins not with culture, but with the economy (leading industries) and, to a lesser extent, with politics.
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
11. The term "Fourth World" describes a group of countries:
a) Western Europe, North America, Japan;
b) Latin America and Africa; c) Brazil, Bulgaria, Poland, etc.
12.Which science is superfluous in the list of sciences that study the structure of society?
a) history; b) economics; c) sociology; d) anthropology.
Part B 1. Match:
A) scientific2. For a person, personal life is always more important than public life
B) ordinary
3. society is a complex dynamic system, all components of which are closely interconnected
B) artistic
4. One of the functions of the family is the socialization of younger generations
All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of “methods of scientific knowledge”. Observation, classification, abstraction, hypothesis, deduction.
Find and indicate the term that “falls out” from the general series.
3. Establish a correspondence between the types of knowledge and their characteristics.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGECHARACTERISTICS
A. everyday experience
B. theoretical knowledge
IN . folk wisdom
G. art
1. generalized practical experience of many generations, a unique set of recipes for behavior in the form of sayings, judgments, proverbs, riddles
2. laws, principles, concepts, theoretical schemes, axioms, logical consequences that form the system
3. a by-product of practical activity or apprenticeship with a master, mentor, craftsman
4. reflection of reality in artistic images
Answer:
AB
IN
G
4. Write down the word missing in the diagram.
Answer:__________________________
Part C
What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “truth”?(definition) ?
Make 2 sentences:
one sentence containing information about absolute truth;
one sentence revealing the relationshipabsolute and relative truth.
Test on the topic: “Scientific knowledge.” 10th grade. Option 2. Part A.1. Reflection and reproduction of reality in the thinking of the subject, the result of which is new knowledge about the world is called:
a) truth; b) consciousness; c) opinion; d) cognition.
2 . Complete, exhaustive knowledge of reality that cannot be refuted is called:
a) relative truth; b) absolute truth; c) objective truth; d) theory.
3. Are the following judgments about social knowledge true?
A. Social knowledge is associated with the interests of the subjects of social knowledge.
B. Social knowledge is characterized by uniformity of views and approaches.
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
4. The highest form of theoretical knowledge is:
A) philosophy; b) religion; c) art; d) social studies.
5. The first treatise on economics is considered to be “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,” the author of which is:
a) John Locke; b) Adam Smith; c) Aristotle; d) Plato.
6. Are judgments about cognition correct:
A. The purpose of knowledge is the acquisition of any knowledge about the world around us
B. False knowledge is a cost of the cognition process
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
7. In the process of sensory cognition, in contrast to rational cognition, the following occurs:
a) direct perception of the object; b) systematization of information;
c) classification of the obtained data; d) formation of concepts.
8.Insert the word missing in the diagram “Forms of sensory cognition”:
a) sensation; b) _____________________; c) presentation
9. Are judgments about deduction correct:
A. The deductive method is the main method for constructing and justifying scientific theories.
B. This is a logical transition from the particular to the general, the result of which is probabilistic.
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
10. Are the judgments about organic modernization correct:
A. Such modernization begins not with the economy, but with culture and a change in public consciousness.
B. Organic modernization is a moment of a country’s own development and is prepared by the entire course of previous evolution.
a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
11. The term “third world” describes a group of countries:
a) Western Europe, North America, Japan; b) Latin America and Africa;
c) Brazil, Bulgaria, Poland, etc.
12.Which science is superfluous in the list of sciences that study human problems?
a) philosophical anthropology; b) economics; c) sociology; d) social psychology.
Part B 1.Match:
Method of scientific knowledgeLevel of scientific knowledge
A) experiment
1.Theoretical
B) mathematical modeling
B) observation
2.Empirical
D) analysis
2. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of “scientific knowledge”.Regularity, sign, objectivity, synthesis, research.
Find and cross out the term that “falls out” from the general series.
3. Establish a correspondence between the forms of knowledge and their essence.
THE ESSENCE OF FORMS OF COGNITIONFORMS OF KNOWLEDGE
A. a thought reflecting the general and essential properties of objects, phenomena, processes.
B. an image of an object of cognition imprinted in memory.
IN. a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, phenomenon, or process.
G. a sensory image of objects, phenomena and processes that directly affect the senses.
1. performance
2. concept
3. judgment
4. perception
Answer:
AB
IN
G
4. Insert the word missing in the diagram.
Answer: ________________________
Part C.
1.What meaning do social scientists put into the concept of “cognition” (definition)?
Write 2 sentences that contain information about cognition.
Keys on the topic “Scientific knowledge” 10th grade
Answers to the test: part A Option 1.
Part B1. 1-in; 2-b; 3-a; 4-a.
2. hypothesis
3. 3214
4.absoluteness
Part C
1. True - reliable knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge.
1) Absolute truth - once and for all established knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge.
2) Over time, relative truth can become absolute with the help of theories and evidence.Truth - it is the content of knowledge that will correctly reveal reality. There is a difference between absolute zero and negative truth. All knowledge that humanity possesses can be attributed to relative truth.
Answers to the test: part A Option 2
1-g2-b
3-a
4-a
5 B
6-in
7-a
8-perception
9-a
10-v
11-v
12-b
Part B
1. 1- b, d 2- a, c
2. sign
3. 2134
4. concept
Part C.
Cognitionis the process of acquiring new knowledge.
1) Cognition There are scientific, social and self-knowledge.
2) Scientificcognition divided into empirical and theoretical levels
1) Scientists identify the followingtypes of knowledge :
- Scientific
- Sensual
- Unscientific
2) Knowledge can be achieved in several ways:
Rational knowledge- it is based on abstract thinking, allows a person to go beyond the limited boundaries of feelings.
Sensual knowledge- it is based on images that have arisen in the human mind, 5 basic senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch.
Cognition and knowledge
Epistemology(from the Greek gnosis - knowledge and logos - teaching) - the doctrine of the essence, patterns and forms of knowledge.
Cognition– 1) the process of comprehending reality, accumulating and comprehending data obtained in the experience of human interaction with the outside world; 2) the process of active reflection and reproduction of reality in the human mind, the result of which is new knowledge about the world.
Knowledge– 1) a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its correct reflection in human thinking; 2) (in a broad sense) any kind of information; 3) (in the narrow sense) information confirmed by scientific means.
True knowledge- knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge, independent of the characteristics of the knowing subject.
Subject and object of knowledge
The process of cognition presupposes the presence of two sides: the cognizing person (the subject of cognition) and the cognizable object (the object of cognition).
Subject of knowledge(from Lat. subjectus - underlying, underlying) - 1) a carrier of objective-practical activity and cognition (individual or social group), a source of activity aimed at an object.
The object of cognition (from the Latin objectum - object) is what opposes the subject in his cognitive activity. The subject itself can act as an object.
The object of cognition means a part of the external world or all real fragments of existence that confront the subject and are specifically subjected to research. So, for example, a person is the object of study of many sciences - biology, medicine, psychology, sociology, philosophy, etc.
Subject– creative principle active in cognition. An object– that which confronts the subject and towards which his cognitive activity is directed.
Forms (sources, stages) of knowledge
There are two forms (source, stage) of knowledge: sensory and rational.
What do sensory cognition and rational cognition have in common?
1) They form knowledge about the subject.
2) Their goal is to obtain true knowledge.
What is the difference between the two forms (stages) of knowledge?
I. Sensory, experiential knowledge.
Forms of sensory knowledge: 1) sensation, 2) perception, 3) representation.
1) Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process, arising as a result of their direct impact on the senses.
The classifications of sensations use different bases. They distinguish visual, gustatory, auditory, tactile and other sensations.
2) Perception is a sensory image of a holistic picture of an object, process, phenomenon that directly affects the senses.
3) Representation - a sensory image of objects and phenomena, stored in consciousness without their direct impact on the senses.
The degree of generalization of a particular representation can be different, and therefore a distinction is made between individual and general representations. Through language, a representation is translated into an abstract concept.
II. Rational, logical cognition (thinking).
Forms of rational knowledge: 1) concept, 2) judgment, 3) inference.
1) Concept - a thought that reflects objects or phenomena in their general and essential characteristics.
The scope of a concept is a class of objects isolated from a set of objects and generalized in a concept.
For example, the volume of the concept “product” means the set of all products offered to the market both now and in the past or in the future.
The law of the inverse relationship between content and volume: the wider the scope of a concept, the poorer it is in content, i.e. specific distinctive features.
2) Judgment is a form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied through the connection of concepts.
Example: Mammalian teeth have roots.
3) Inference - reasoning during which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, called a conclusion, conclusion or consequence.
Any conclusion consists of premises, conclusion and conclusion. The premises of an inference are the initial judgments from which a new judgment is derived.
A conclusion is a new judgment obtained logically from the premises. The logical transition from premises to conclusion is called a conclusion.
Types of inferences:
1) deductive, 2) inductive, 3) traductive (by analogy).
Deduction(from Latin deductio - deduction) - deducing the particular from the general; a path of thinking that leads from the general to the particular, from the general to the particular.
The general form of deduction is a syllogism, the premises of which form the specified general position, and the conclusions form the corresponding particular judgment.
Example #1:
1st premise: mammalian teeth have roots;
2nd premise: a dog is a mammal;
Conclusion (conclusion): a dog's teeth have roots.
Example No. 2
1st premise: all metals conduct electric current;
2nd premise: copper - metal;
Conclusion (conclusion): copper conducts electric current.
Induction(Latin inductio - guidance) - a way of reasoning from particular provisions to general conclusions.
Traduction (Latin traductio - movement) is a logical conclusion in which premises and conclusions are judgments of the same generality.
A traditional inference is an analogy.
Types of tradition: 1) conclusion from individual to individual, 2) conclusion from particular to particular, 3) conclusion from general to general.
Intuition
Intuition- (in medieval Latin intuitio, from intueor - I look closely) - comprehension of the truth by direct observation of it without justification with the help of evidence.
Intuition is a specific component of the connection between sensory and rational cognition.
Intuition - 1) the ability of human consciousness, in some cases, to grasp the truth by instinct, by guesswork, relying on previous experience, on previously acquired knowledge; 2) insight; 3) direct cognition, cognitive premonition, cognitive insight; 4) ultra-fast thought process.
Rationalism(from Latin rationalis reasonable, ratio reason) is a philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.
Empiricism
Empiricism(from the Greek empeiria - experience), a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of reliable knowledge. Empiricism was formed in the 17th – 18th centuries. (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume).
Sensationalism(from Latin sensus - perception, feeling), a direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge. Sensualism is an early form of empiricism.
The philosophers who represent it deny the existence of innate knowledge and are generally skeptical about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge based on reason alone.
Intuition as a source of knowledge
Intutivism- a movement in philosophy that sees intuition as the only reliable means of knowledge.
There have been cases where the formulated results of “insights” lasted for centuries before they received due recognition, were logically justified and found practical application. These, in particular, include Leonardo da Vinci's prediction of the possibility of making heavier-than-air aircraft, Roger Bacon's formulation (though not entirely clear) of the law of constancy of composition and the law of shares (multiple ratios) in chemistry, Francis Bacon's foresight of the possibility of creating diving vessels and the ability to maintain the vital functions of the body when vital organs are removed.
Types of intuition: 1) sensual, 2) intellectual, 3) mystical.
Objective, absolute and relative truth
True– correspondence between facts and statements about these facts. Truth is a property of statements, judgments or beliefs.
Objective truth– the content of knowledge, which is determined by the subject being studied itself, does not depend on the preferences and interests of a person.
Absolute truth– complete, exhaustive knowledge of reality; that element of titles which cannot be refuted in the future.
Relative truth– incomplete, limited knowledge; such elements of knowledge that in the process of development of knowledge will change and be replaced by new ones.
Each relative truth means a step forward in the knowledge of absolute truth; if it is scientific, it contains elements, grains of absolute truth.
Absolute truth and relative truth are different levels (forms) of objective truth.
Misconception- deviation from the truth, which we accept as the truth.
Lie- a statement that does not correspond to the truth, expressed in this form consciously - and this differs from a fallacy.
Do we know the world?
Agnosticism(Greek a denial, gnosis knowledge) is a philosophical doctrine that denies, in whole or in part, the possibility of knowing the world. Agnosticism limits the role of science only to the knowledge of phenomena.
What is the reason for the relativity of human knowledge?
1) The world is endlessly changing.
2) Human cognitive capabilities are limited.
3) The possibilities of knowledge depend on the real historical conditions of their time and are determined by the level of development of spiritual culture, material production, and the available means of observation and experiment.
4) Features of human cognitive activity.
True knowledge is hampered by various objective and subjective factors:
1) the very nature of man (the limitations of his mind and the imperfection of his senses
2) individual characteristics of a person, his origin, upbringing, education, etc.
3) The idols of the market are generated by social relations and the conventions associated with them: language, concepts of everyday and scientific thinking;
Criteria of truth
What is the criterion (measurement) of truth?
Criterion– (from the Greek kriterion – means for judgment) – 1) a sign on the basis of which something is assessed, determined or classified; 2) a measure of evaluation.
Criterion of truth- a means of verifying the truth of human knowledge.
- truth – the usefulness or workability of an idea;
- the criterion of truth is practice = material production + scientific experiment.
Practice(from the Greek praktikos - active, active) - material, goal-setting activity of people.
Functions of practice in the process of cognition:
1) starting point, source of knowledge (existing sciences are brought to life by the needs of practice);
2) the basis of knowledge (it is thanks to the transformation of the surrounding world that the most profound knowledge of the properties of the surrounding world occurs);
3) practice is the driving force behind the development of society;
4) practice is the goal of knowledge (a person learns the world in order to use the results of knowledge in practical activities);
5) practice is the criterion of the truth of knowledge.
Main types of practice: 1) scientific experiment, 2) production of material goods and 3) socially transformative activity of the masses.
Practice structure: 1) need, 2) goal, 3) motive, 4) purposeful activity, 5) subject, 6) means and 7) result.
Practice 1) does not cover the entire real world, moreover, 2) practical confirmation of a theory may not occur immediately, but after many years, but this does not mean that this theory is not true. 3) Such a criterion of truth is relative, since practice itself develops, improves and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition.
The idea of complementarity of criteria of truth: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, and is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
Levels of scientific knowledge
1. Empirical level
Empirical knowledge is based on sensory experience. The main form of acquired knowledge is fact. Main task: description of objects and phenomena.
Methods of empirical knowledge:
a) observation;
b) description;
c) measurement;
d) comparison;
d) experiment.
2. Theoretical level- formulation of principles, laws, creation of theories that contain the essence of knowable phenomena. Theoretical knowledge is based on scientific theory.
Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge:
a) idealization - a method of scientific knowledge in which individual properties of the object being studied are replaced with symbols or signs;
b) formalization;
c) mathematization;
d) generalization
Forms of non-scientific knowledge
Forms of non-scientific knowledge:
2) life experience;
3) folk wisdom;
4) common sense;
5) religion;
Cognition
Knowledge in the narrow sense- any kind of information.
Knowledge in a broad sense- information confirmed by scientific means.
Knowledge- proven by practice result cognitive activity.
Bacon" Knowledge is power".
Cognition- conditioned by socio-historical practice process acquisition and development of knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement.
Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge.
Ontology- the doctrine of being.
^ Genesis- the world around us.
Subject of knowledge- a knowledgeable person
An object
Subject and object can be the same.
Cognition can be voluntary (burn) and organized.
Types of knowledge:
1. sensual
Forms of sensory knowledge:
Feeling- reflection of individual properties of an object and qualities of the surrounding world that directly affect the senses (table - cold)
Perception- a holistic image of the object (table - cold, smooth, warm)
Performance- a sensory image of an object stored in memory (with eyes closed)
Sensationalism- a movement according to which sensation and perception are the main forms of knowledge (Locke, Candillac)
^ Features of sensory cognition:
Reflects only the characteristics of objects
Passive, a person is not able to change feelings (cold is cold)
It is impossible to comprehend the essence of objects and their properties
2. rational
Forms of rational knowledge:
Concept- a thought that reflects objects in their general and essential characteristics (table, chair, furniture; classification)
Judgment- a form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied through the connection of concepts. (fly-insect)
Conclusion- a form of thought in the form of reasoning, during which a new one is derived from one or more judgments (A fly has wings, which means it flies).
-deduction- From general to specific
-analogy - similarity of non-identical objects in some aspects
Scientists who consider the mind to be the main source of knowledge - rationalists(Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel).
^ Features of rational cognition:
Has a generalized character
Is abstract in nature
Active and purposeful
Related to speech
^ The purpose of knowledge is truth.
Lie - deliberate distortion of reality.
Misconception
True- knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it.
Signs of truth:
objectivity - independence from human consciousness
specificity
it's a process
Absolute- complete, comprehensive knowledge about the subject (2*2=4)
Relative- changeable knowledge as cognition develops. Replaced with a new one or becomes a delusion.
Forms of practice:
material production (VGO)
socially transformative activities (accumulated experience)
scientific experiment.
practice is the source of knowledge
practice is the basis of knowledge
practice is the goal of knowledge
practice is the criterion of truth.
1. Unscientific
B) life experience (ordinary) - gaining knowledge is a by-product, does not pretend to be theoretically justified. Statement of facts and their description.
C) folk wisdom - generalized practical knowledge: aphorisms, sayings, judgments, riddles, a set of recipes for behavior
D) common sense - spontaneously developing knowledge under the influence of everyday experience (if you don’t know, don’t touch)
D) artistic and figurative
2. Scientific
Features of scientific knowledge:
strives for maximum objectivity
strives to obtain knowledge that would be important not only for present, but also for future generations.
Uses specific scientific language
uses special methods
1.e empirical- based on the description of objects and phenomena (Ohm’s law)
2.theoretical- based on laws, principles, scientific theories that reveal the essence of cognitive processes, laws that cannot be observed (Einstein’s theory of relativity)
^ Methods of scientific knowledge:
observation - the study of individual objects and phenomena, obtaining knowledge about external properties and signs. Relies on sensory cognition, the result is a description. Empirical methods.
The experimental method is carried out under strictly defined conditions.
imagination. Theoretical methods.
hypothesizing
building theoretical models
gradual accumulation - NTP
scientific revolution (Einstein)
Social cognition
Social cognition- knowledge of society.
Features of social cognition:
the subject and object of cognition coincide
society is a difficult object to study because the interests of many people and social groups are intertwined, people’s desires are often disguised, and the same events are not similar to each other.
Possibilities of observation and experiment are limited
subjectivity of the student
variety of conclusions and assessments on the same phenomena.
concrete historical approach- consideration of the phenomenon in historical development and relationship with other phenomena. Historical patterns are the most stable, significant connections (PP)
management of scientific methods.
Maintaining a distance to the object - objectivity
choosing what is significant in a phenomenon
Types of social facts:
Actions, actions of people or social groups (Oleg’s campaign)
products of human activity
Spiritual
verbal actions: opinions, judgments, assessments (I'm going to you)
Interpretation - interpretation, explanation, revealing the meaning of something.
Summing up the concept (revolution, 1917, Russia, brief meaning) ------ reasons, reason, results ---------- comparison with similar facts in our country and the world------- grade.
^ Score- approval or condemnation of various phenomena of social reality and people's actions.
The assessment of the fact depends on:
From the properties of the object being studied itself
From correlation with another similar or ideal
From the interests of the student and the communities to which he belongs.
Self-knowledge
Self-knowledge- the process of a person learning about himself.
Self-awareness- defining oneself as a person capable of making independent decisions and entering into certain relationships with society and nature.
Stages of self-awareness:
sensory perception of the world
ability to independently operate with objects
building self-esteem
Self-esteem depends on:
from the man himself
Attitude to your successes and failures
from other people's assessments.
adequate
overpriced
understated
Consists of I - images.
I am the image- a person's self-image
I am open (I know, everyone knows)
I am a closed person (I know, others don’t know)
I am blind (others know, I don't know)
I am the unknown (no one knows)
Self-realization- the process of the most complete identification and implementation by an individual of his capabilities, achievement of goals, allowing the maximum realization of the creative potential of the individual.
Philosophical views on the world
Ways of knowing the world:
mythological
About the heroes
About the end of the world. Eschatology is the doctrine of the end of the world.
On the origin of man and the world
^ Features of mythological consciousness:
Perceived all occurring phenomena as real, in the form of images
The causes of phenomena were seen as the action of purposeful forces (God, the evil eye)
Perception of time through periods of human life
Perception of the world as an arena of struggle between good and evil forces
2. religious
3. philosophical
4. scientific
Philosophy(Greek) - love of wisdom
Philosophy- the science of the most general laws of nature and society.
The main question of philosophy:
1.what is primary - being or thinking, nature or consciousness.
Materialists- being is primary
Matter- objective reality given to us in sensations.
Forms of matter:
Real
Field (electricity)
Idealists - consciousness is primary
A) objective - nature is a product of the world consciousness, the world spirit (Plato, Hegel)
B) subjective - human sensations are primary (Berkeley)
do we know the world?
Agnostics-no (Kant)
Relativism- recognition of the relativity of knowledge, denial of absolute ethical norms and rules.
Skepticism- a doctrine that does not deny the possibility of knowing the world, but expresses doubt that all knowledge about the world is reliable.
^ Ancient philosophers.
Plato.
The first work on society “State”. Idealist. Supporter of cyclical development (Atlantis). Bad forms of government: timocracy, democracy, oligarchy, tyranny.
Timocracy- a form of government in which power belongs to ambitious people.
The ideal is an aristocratic state.
Philosophers (wise)
Warriors (brave)
Peasants and artisans (moderate, producers of goods)
Aristotle.
" Plato is my friend but the truth is dearer"
Introduced concepts democracy and citizen.
Called correct forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy (the rule of the best few), democracy
^ Wrong Forms of Government : tyranny (the benefits of one), oligarchy (the benefits of wealthy citizens), ochlocracy (the power of the crowd).
Merintocracy- power based on merit.
An ideal state of fair inequality:
The rich (plutocracy - acquire wealth through unnatural means)
- middle layers
Poor citizens of the second category
He did not deny private property and slavery. Supporter of cyclical development.
^ Socrates.
“All I know is that I don’t know anything.” " Know yourself".
Cicero.
Introduced the concept of the individual. Supporter of the Republic.
Epicurus.
The meaning of life is to have fun. The cause of suffering is passion, fear. The result of a correct life is ataraxia - undisturbed peace of the soul. Follower- Gassendi.
Medieval philosophers.
Theology is a medieval philosophy based on theology.
^ Augustine Aurelius.
Theory of harmony of faith and reason: There are things that can be known with the help of reason, and others with the help of faith. “Without faith there is no knowledge, no truth.” "I believe so that I can understand." "About the city of God and the city of earth."
^ Thomas Aquinas.
Scholastic. Scholasticism- medieval philosophy based on theology.
Faith should not contradict reason; they lead to the knowledge of God in different ways. He gave preference to faith.
^ Philosophers of modern times.
Bacon.
Representative of rationalism. "Reason is not faith"
Descartes- representative of rationalism. “I think, therefore I exist.”
Occam- The reality of God cannot be established by logic; the only way of knowledge is faith.
Hobbes.
The main work is “Leviathan”. Founder social contract theory: people from birth are endowed with natural rights to life, liberty, and private property. Over time, a “war of all against all” began, people gave up part of their rights in exchange for protection from the state. Supporter of absolute monarchy.
Locke.
"2 treatises on government." Divided power into legislative and executive. Founder of liberalism.
Montesquieu.
Separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Founder of determinism. Follower - Ratzel.
Machiavelli.
"Sovereign". For a stable state, where the monarch stands above morality and law, he sets the laws himself. Politics should not be based on morality, “the end justifies the means.”
Machiavellianism- a policy based on the cult of violence and immorality.
Voltaire.
Enlightener. He believed that a person should strive not for the afterlife, but for a decent life in the real world. “Crush the reptile!” (about the church). For political equality before the law and justice. Reason is the main criterion of progress.
Rousseau.
"New Heloise", "Emil". He tried to explain the reasons for the emergence of the social contract: natural inequality leads to property inequality, property inequality led to the division of society into managers and governed, and put forward the slogan “Back to Nature.”
Smith.
The basis of society is the division of labor, labor is the main source of wealth. 3 conditions for the prosperity of the state:
Private property
Non-intervention of the state in the economy
Freedom for entrepreneurship
3 main classes, which were distinguished by sources of income:
Bourgeoisie-profit
Land owners - rent
Workers - salary
The basis of human actions is selfishness, the desire to improve one’s position.
^ Diderot.
Encyclopedist. The ideal state is an enlightened monarchy.
Ricardo.
Creator labor theory of value. Income is based on the cost of goods, the source of which is the labor of workers. The source of surplus value is the unpaid labor of hired workers.
Utopian socialists.
Ideal society, equality, free labor, planned economy, distribution according to work, community of interests.
^ Pestilence. "Utopia"
Campanella. " City of Sun".
Fourier. Phalanxes.
^ Owen. Community in the USA "New Harmony".
Kant.
Founder agnosticism- a doctrine that denies the possibility of objective knowledge of the world. "The thing in itself." Golden Rule.
^ Marx.
Founder of the theory of socio-economic formation.
OEF- a historically specific society, taken at a certain stage of development with its own mode of production.
The basis of the OEF is the production method, which consists of productive forces- people and means of production (tools of labor and subject of labor (what labor is aimed at)) and industrial relations- relations between people regarding property. He saw material production as the basis for the development of society. He identified 5 main OEFs. Relations of production- basis OEF, which determines superstructure- dominant ideas and views. Contradictions between p.o and p.s lead to a change in the OEF. Class struggle- the driving force of history.
The transition from capitalism to communism through a revolution driven by the proletariat. "Manifesto of the Communist Party".
Communism- labor as a necessity, no private property, from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs, there is no difference between mental and physical labor, no exploitation.
Exploitation- appropriation of the results of someone else's work.
"Capital". Founder theory of surplus value- the difference between the cost of goods and the cost of labor.
^ Lenin. Creator of the theory imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. Doctrine of socialism. The possibility of a socialist revolution in one particular country.
^ Plekhanov. Bernstein.
Founders revisionism- a doctrine proclaiming the need to revise the doctrine, in particular, asserting that with the development of capitalism, the contradictions between rich and poor will weaken, as the standard of living of workers will increase.
Galbraith.
Founder technocratism. Technology is a driving force in the development of society, a special role for people with scientific and technical knowledge - technocrats. For government intervention in the economy.
^ Sartre. Kierkegaard. Heidegger. Camus.
Founders existentialism. A person makes himself, there is no given nature of a person, no external force can influence him. The task of a person is to find his inner essence. Man is free and responsible for himself.
Nietzsche.
Life is different options for the struggle for power. The idea of a superman who will not be flawed, weak, mediocre.
Schopenhauer. "The world as will and representation." Along with the laws of nature and society, the world will operates.
Milbras.
Humanity is abusing the environment, it is necessary to protect it and preserve it for future generations - a new value of liberalism.
Inglehart.
Values of postmodernism: economic achievements, declining bureaucratic authority, declining role of religion, flexible rules of ethics, a sense of existential security.
Sartori.
Selective polyarchy- power belongs to a minority, but unlike an oligarchy, it is not closed and allows opposition. "Revisiting the Theory of Democracy".
^ Easton, Deutsch, Almond.
We studied the political system as a system of interaction between political subjects. We identified the structure of “input (system requirements, support) and output (government decisions and actions).
Vernadsky.
Doctrine of noosphere-the surface of the earth transformed by the human mind.
Soloviev.
The idea of Sophia the soul of the world. The meaning of human existence is to reach the kingdom of God through the kingdom of nature. The final stage is God-manhood. The Muslim East is one master and many slaves, the West is universal selfishness and anarchy, the Slavic world is the reconciliation of two worlds.
Berdyaev.
The basis is freedom and creativity.
Kondratiev.
The theory of economic cycles.
Westerners.
Slavophiles.
Bogdanov.
The new science - tectology, anticipated cybernetics.
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