In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was that the Livonians detained 123 Western specialists on their territory who were heading to Russia. The failure of the Livonians to pay tribute for their capture of Yuryev (Derpt) in 1224 also played a significant role. The campaign, which began in 1558 and lasted until 1583, was called the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which went with varying degrees of success for the Russian army.
First period of the war
In 1558 - 1563, Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Dorpat, and approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. Since 1563, it has become clear that the Livonian War is becoming protracted for Russia.
Second period of the Livonian War
The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. For Russia, the war with Livonia turned into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to devastation. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of his opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Third period of the war
The third period of the war takes place in 1579 - 1583. During these years, Russian troops fought defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikiye Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Voivode Shuisky led the defense of Pskov. The city held out for five months and repelled about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.
Results of the Livonian War
The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost the Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War greatly depleted Russia. But the main task of this war - gaining access to the Baltic Sea - was never completed.
In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.
The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneous war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even to cede Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden on the conclusion of the Treaty of Plus, humiliating for the Russian state. . Negotiations at Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:
ü The Russian state lost all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it remained only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).
ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).
ü In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.
The Russian state again found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.
Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War
Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society during critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, and the views of historians on certain historical events change according to the times. The views of modern historians on the Livonian War are practically unanimous and do not cause much disagreement. The views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, and Pogodin about the Livonian War, which were dominant in the 19th century, are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.
Livonian War (1558-1583). Causes. Move. Results
At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change in the social system occurred. During this transitional period, outstanding historians came to Russian historical science - representatives of different historical schools: statesman S.F. Platonov, creator of the “proletarian-internationalist” school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Whipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their points of view. During the Soviet period, historical schools successively replaced each other: the “Pokrovsky school” in the mid-1930s. The 20th century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (from the late 1950s of the 20th century), among whose adherents we can mention A.A. Zimina, V.B. Kobrina, R.G. Skrynnikova.
N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.” The historian places responsibility for the defeat in the war on the tsar, whom he accuses of “cowardice” and “confusion of spirit.”
According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, Ivan IV was faced with an alternative - either “deal with the Crimea” or “take possession of Livonia.” The historian explains Ivan IV’s counterintuitive decision to fight on two fronts by “discord” between his advisers. In his writings, Kostomarov writes that the Livonian War drained the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the Russian armed forces as a result of oprichnina actions. According to Kostomarov, as a result of the peace with Poland and the truce with Sweden, “the western borders of the state shrank, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost.”
The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Soloviev (1820-1879) explains by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were allegedly not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss of seemingly conquered Livonia by Ivan IV was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) army and European military art over the Russian noble militia.
According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was “happening on its western borders,” which “exploited it and oppressed it (with unfavorable terms of trade).” The defeat of the troops of Ivan IV at the last stage of the Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were “signs of a clear depletion of means for the fight.” The historian also notes, mentioning the economic crisis that befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory “beat an already lying enemy, not defeated by him, but who had lost his strength before fighting him.”
M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - without any doubt, from the ranks of the “military”. The historian notes both the “very opportune moment” for the invasion and the absence of “almost any formal reason” for it. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow “the entire south-eastern coast of the Baltic” with trading ports to come under Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the main defeats of the Livonian War to be the unsuccessful sieges of Revel and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod. He also notes the great influence on the outcome of the war of the Crimean invasion of 1571.
According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Elected Rada and could have been won if Russia had acted earlier. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic to be the largest of all wars waged by Russia, as well as “the most important event in European history.” Whipper explains Russia's defeat by the fact that by the end of the war, "Russia's military structure" was in disintegration, and "Grozny's ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability ended."
A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government “to raise the issue of annexing the Baltic states” with “the strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century.” Among the motives that prompted this decision, he highlights the need to acquire Russia's access to the Baltic Sea to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility hoped to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of “a number of major Western powers” in the Livonian War as the result of “the short-sighted policy of the Chosen Rada.” The historian connects Russia’s defeat in the war with this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, and with the death of skilled military leaders during the oprichnina years.
The beginning of the “War for Livonia” R.G. Skrynnikov associates it with Russia’s “first success” - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which “plans for the conquest of Livonia and establishment in the Baltic states” were put forward. The historian points to Russia’s “special goals” in the war, the main one of which was to create conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants interfered with the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV’s attempts to organize his own “shelter” at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the Polish armed forces led by Stefan Batory. The historian notes that in the army of Ivan IV at that time there were not 300 thousand people, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion of peace by Ivan IV with the renunciation of Livonian possessions in favor of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.
According to V.B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian War became unpromising for Russia when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became opponents of Moscow. The historian notes the key role of Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russian foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. Kobrin considers the conditions of the Russian-Polish truce concluded in 1582 not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. He notes in this regard that the goal of the war was not achieved - “the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states.” The historian considers the conditions of the truce with Sweden even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, was “lost.”
Conclusion
Thus:
1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.
2. The immediate reason for the start of the Livonian War was the issue of the “Yuriev tribute.”
3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state.
4. From 1561, the Livonian War entered its second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.
5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic States. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570 was proclaimed “King of Livonia” upon his arrival in Moscow.
6. The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.
7. The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.
8. By 1577, in fact, all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina (Vidzeme) was in the hands of the Russians, except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that Russia by this time had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, Emperor Maximilian II died in October 1576, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its division did not materialize. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, the former Prince of Semigrad, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark disappeared completely as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.
9. In 1579, Batory captured Polotsk and Velikie Luki, in 1581 he besieged Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Wesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsalu, Pärnu and the entire Southern (Russian) ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingria, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in the Ladoga region - Korela.
10. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.
11. The Treaty of Plus was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv). In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast district and the coast of Lake Ladoga.
12. As a result, the Russian state found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.
List of used literature
1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. – M., 1966.
2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.
3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.
4. Kobrin V.B. Ivan groznyj. - M., 1989.
5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Whipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.
6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan groznyj. – M., 1980.
7. Soloviev S.M. Essays. History of Russia from ancient times. - M., 1989.
Read in the same book: Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military actions of 1561 - 1577 |mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec.)
The best thing history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.
The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus' by improving trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.
Beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of continuous wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus'.
Wars were fought on several fronts:
- The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
- The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
- The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.
Map of the Livonian War
Reasons for the start of the Livonian War
Ivan IV the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push the borders of the state back in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:
- Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livn Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former agreed to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order unilaterally withdrew from this obligation.
- The weakening of the foreign political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national disagreements.
Speaking about the reason, we should focus on the fact that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea and blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in capturing Livonia. But the main reason can be identified as the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. Victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.
Progress of the war and main events
The Livonian War was fought with long interruptions and is historically divided into four stages.
First stage of the war
At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of destruction and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not one weak, but two strong opponents.
The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of war, extortions and other disasters.
Second stage of the war
The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar’s refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could only be continued in conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the “Elected Rada”.
It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.
Third stage of the war
The third stage (1570–1577) involved local battles between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any significant results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.
The fourth stage of the war
At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captured the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar’s luck ran out and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita), Stefan Batory, expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.).
Livonian War 1558-1583
The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, and Koporye.
Russia was saved from complete defeat by the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 assault attempts, weakening Batory’s army.
The end of the war and its results
The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Treaty of Plus was signed in 1583.
Thus, we can highlight the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liovno War:
- adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war simultaneously with three strong states;
- the harmful influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
- A deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted during the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.
Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russian foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.
Siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov
- Date: January 15, 1582.
- Place: village of Kiverova Gora, 15 versts from Zapolsky Yam.
- Type: peace treaty.
- Military conflict: Livonian War.
- Participants, countries: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Russian Kingdom.
- Participants, country representatives: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D. P. Eletsky, R.
Livonian War
V. Olferev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.
- Negotiating mediator: Antonio Possevino.
The Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.
Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty: conditions, results and significance
Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth returned all conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the region of Velizh, where the border that existed until 1514 (until the annexation of Smolensk to the Russian kingdom) was restored.
The Russian kingdom gave up all its territories in the Baltic states (territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The agreement, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian Empire, did not mention the Livonian cities that were captured by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth made a special statement stipulating territorial claims against Sweden, this issue remained open.
In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which was not implemented in practice. Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not acquire new territories and did not resolve contradictions with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.
Introduction 3
1.Causes of the Livonian War 4
2.Stages of war 6
3. Results and consequences of the war 14
Conclusion 15
References 16
Introduction.
The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and grueling, it brought Russia many losses. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military actions changed the geopolitical map of our country and had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the variety of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.
Article: Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences
After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Consequently, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.
Purpose This work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :
- identify the causes of the Livonian War
- analyze its stages
- consider the results and consequences of the war
1.Causes of the Livonian War
After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible is faced with new tasks - to return the Russian lands once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.
In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.
For example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the ill will of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves of Ivan the Terrible’s aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them “beneficent intentions for Russia.”
N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible was faced with an alternative - either to deal with Crimea or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains Ivan IV’s counterintuitive decision to fight on two fronts by “discord” between his advisers.
S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.
IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.
S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not come to terms with unfavorable terms of trade.
M.N. Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of certain “advisers” from among the army.
According to R.Yu. Vipper, “The Livonian War was prepared and planned for quite a long time by the leaders of the Elected Rada.”
R.G. Skrynnikov connects the start of the war with Russia’s first success - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish itself in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that “the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea.”
V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in the outbreak of the Livonian War.
In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, unwilling strengthening Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.
The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuriev tribute” (Yuriev, later called Dorpat (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the treaty of 1503, an annual tribute had to be paid for it and the surrounding territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.
2. Stages of the war.
The Livonian War can be roughly divided into 4 stages. The first (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) involved primarily the Russian-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russian-Swedish war continued.
Let's look at each of the stages in more detail.
First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuriev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops marched throughout Livonia (as far as Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of political figures grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559 it was concluded for a period of six months.
The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga came under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of acute political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master W. Fürstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ösel (Saaremaa).
The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became Swedish citizens. According to the Treaty of Vilna of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the authority of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and its last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.
Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.
Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. The Zemstvo Sobor, convened at this time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to give up those cities of Livonia, which the king took for protection, but it is better for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that abandoning Livonia would harm trade interests.
Third stage. Since 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Sejm in Lublin, the unification of Lithuania and Poland into a single state took place - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.
Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltics.
The Danish Duke Magnus accepted Ivan the Terrible’s offer to become his vassal (“gold-holder”) and in the same May 1570, upon his arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia.” The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the “kingdom” of Magnus with the marriage of Magnus to the niece of the king, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.
The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. On a more immediate level, the tsar was concerned about the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of the tsar’s correct, strategically deep understanding of the balance of power in Europe and his accurate vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the near and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as quickly as possible, until it came to a united Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.
After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its gaze to the Baltic and put forward plans to capture Livonia. For Russia, the main goal of the Livonian War was to gain access to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.
The reason for the start of the war was the failure of the Livonian Order to pay tribute, which they were obliged to pay under the peace treaty of 1554. In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.
At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Dorpat, Yuryev.
Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and, a month before the end of the truce, defeated the Russian troops.
Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed favorable opportunities for victory in Livonia. Moscow made peace with Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia.
The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying degrees of success.
Russia's highest achievement in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, after which military failures followed
In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors came to Moscow with a proposal for a truce and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia would remain with Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded all of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund Augustus resumed the war with Russia. In 1568, Sweden dissolved its previously concluded alliance with Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572, Stefan Batory took the throne.
The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stefan Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. On September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, and after that the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny. Realizing the impossibility of waging war against two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Batory on a truce in order to concentrate all forces on the reconquest of Narva. But plans to attack Narva remained unfulfilled.
The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties that were unfavorable for Russia.
On January 15, 1582, the Yam Zapolsky Treaty on a 10-year truce was signed. Russia ceded all its possessions in Livonia to Poland, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.
In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Treaty of Plus on a three-year truce. The Swedes retained all the captured Russian cities. Russia has retained a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.
The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea.
The Livonian War became one of the largest military conflicts of the 16th century, engulfing Russia and northeastern Europe. The armies of the Livonian Confederation, Moscow, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Swedish and Danish kingdoms fought on the territory of modern Estonia, Latvia and Belarus. Following the interests of the state, Ivan IV the Terrible, who became famous as an ambitious and capricious monarch, decided to take part in the upcoming redistribution of Europe in connection with the extinction of the once strong Livonian Order. As a result, the protracted conflict was not crowned with success for Moscow.
First, you should briefly talk about the participants in this war and find out the strengths of the parties.
Livonian Confederation
The Livonian Order, or the Brotherhood of the Knights of Christ of Livonia, is a military-religious organization of crusader knights that settled in northeastern Europe back in the 13th century. Relations between the Livonians and the Russian principalities did not work out from the very beginning; in 1242, the knights, still part of the Teutonic Order, took part in the campaign against Pskov and Novgorod, but were defeated in a battle known as the Battle of the Ice. By the 15th century, the order had weakened, and Livonia was a confederation of the Order and four princely bishoprics that competed fiercely with each other.
Map of the Livonian Confederation
By the 16th century, the internal political situation only worsened, social and political disunity in the order lands increased to a critical limit. Therefore, it is not surprising that Livonia’s non-peaceful neighbors, namely Sweden, Denmark and Russia, circled like vultures over the Baltic states, expecting quick prey. One of the predecessors of Ivan the Terrible, Grand Duke Ivan III, at the beginning of the 16th century concluded a peace treaty with the Order, according to which the Livonians paid an annual tribute to Pskov. Subsequently, Ivan the Terrible tightened the terms of the treaty, additionally demanding the abandonment of military alliances with Lithuania and Sweden. The Livonians refused to comply with such demands, and in 1557 the Order signed a treaty of vassalage with Poland. In 1558, a war began, which put an end to the Livonian Confederation.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
A vast state, located on the territory of modern Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania, was formed in the 13th century, and since the 16th century it existed as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 15th-16th centuries, the Principality of Lithuania was Moscow's main rival for dominance over the territories from Smolensk to the Bug and from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Therefore, the active participation of the Litvins in the Livonian War is not at all surprising.
Russian kingdom
As we have already mentioned, the initiator of the Livonian War was Ivan the Terrible, one of the most famous Russian sovereigns. From his father Vasily III he inherited a strong state, albeit one that had been waging incessant wars for the expansion of territory since the beginning of the 16th century. One of the goals of the active tsar was the Baltic states, since the Livonian Order, falling into insignificance, could not provide significant resistance to Russia. The entire strength of the Livonians lay in their medieval heritage - many fortified castles that formed a powerful defensive line capable of tying up enemy forces for a long time.
Ivan the Terrible (Parsun of the late XVI century)
The basis of Ivan the Terrible's army were the Streltsy - the first regular Russian army, recruited from urban and rural residents, armed with cannons and arquebuses. Seemingly impregnable medieval castles could not protect their owners from rapidly developing and improving artillery. Shortly before the start of the war, in 1557, the tsar gathered an army of forty thousand in Novgorod for the upcoming campaign and was confident of the impending success.
Initial period of the war
The war began on January 17, 1558 with a reconnaissance raid of Russian troops on Livonian territory, which was led by the Kazan Khan Shah-Ali and the governors Glinsky and Zakharyev-Yuryev. The diplomatic justification for the campaign was an attempt to obtain the tribute due to Pskov from the Livonians, but the Order had no chance of collecting the required amount of 60 thousand thalers.
Narva was a strong border fortress of the Livonian Order, founded by the Danes in the 13th century. On the other side of the border, to protect against a possible invasion, the Ivangorod Fortress was erected at the end of the 15th century. The distance between the fortifications was about two kilometers, which, after the outbreak of hostilities, allowed the garrison of Narva, commanded by knight Focht Schnellenberg, to open fire on Ivangorod, provoking a long artillery firefight. By April 1558, Russian troops led by governors Daniil Adashev, Alexei Basmanov and Ivan Buturlin approached Narva. The siege began.
On May 11, the fortress was engulfed in fire, which grew due to strong winds. The defenders of Narva had to leave the walls and rush into an unequal battle with a more powerful enemy - the raging flame. Taking advantage of the panic in the city, Ivan the Terrible's troops launched an assault and broke through the gates without hindrance. Having quickly captured the lower city along with enemy artillery, they opened fire on the upper city and the citadel. The besieged quickly accepted their inevitable defeat and surrendered on the terms of free exit from the city. Narva was taken.
Along with the fortress, Ivan the Terrible received a harbor with access to the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea - it became the cradle of the Russian fleet.
In addition to the quick capture of Narva with little bloodshed, 1558 was crowned with a number of equally successful operations of the Russian army. At the end of June, despite the heroic defense, Neuhausen Castle fell, whose garrison was led by the knight Uexküll von Padenorm - the fortress successfully fought back for a whole month, but truly knightly courage was powerless against the artillery of the governor Peter Shuisky. In July, Shuisky captured Dorpat (modern Tartu) - for seven days artillery destroyed the fortifications almost point-blank, after which the besieged could only negotiate surrender.
Gotthard von Ketler (portrait of the last third of the 16th century)
As a result, during the spring-autumn period of 1558, the Streltsy army captured two dozen fortresses, including those that voluntarily came under the authority of the Russian Tsar. By the end of the year, the situation changed - the Livonians decided to launch a counterattack. By 1559, Gotthard von Kettler became the new head of the Order, becoming the last in history to hold the title of Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia...
Campaign of 1559
At the end of the year, when the Russian troops retreated to winter quarters, leaving garrisons in the captured fortresses, the new landmaster, with some difficulty, managed to gather an army of ten thousand and approached the fortress of Ringen, guarded by only a few hundred archers. The defenders, doomed to defeat, heroically defended themselves for five weeks. Voivode Repnin came to the aid of Ringen, but his detachment of two thousand people was defeated by Ketler’s army. When the archers ran out of gunpowder, the Livonians were able to capture the fortress. All its defenders were destroyed. However, the capture of Ringen can hardly be called a success for the Livonians - after spending more than a month and losing a fifth of his army during the siege, Ketler was unable to continue the offensive and retreated to Riga.
After the capture of Ringen by the Livonians, Tsar Ivan the Terrible decided to give the Order an adequate response. At the beginning of 1559, the archers, led by governor Vasily Semenovich Serebryany-Obolensky, crossed the Livonian border and on January 17 met with the army of the knight Friedrich von Felkersam near the city of Tirzen (now Tirza in Latvia). The battle ended in a crushing defeat for the Livonians - Frederick himself and 400 knights (not counting ordinary soldiers) died, the rest were captured or fled. Taking advantage of the success, Russian troops marched through the Livonian lands through Riga to the Prussian border, capturing 11 more cities.
This operation caused the complete collapse of the Livonian army, whose combat effectiveness decreased to a catastrophic level. By the spring of 1559, all the neighbors of the Order had significantly revived, since not only Moscow had views of the lands of Livonia. Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark demanded that Ivan the Terrible stop the campaign, threatening to take the side of the Livonian Confederation.
An equally important factor was the concern of European monarchs about the strengthening of Moscow. Thus, the Lithuanian Prince Sigismund II, not without notes of panic, reported in a dispatch to Queen Elizabeth of England:
“The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him... military specialists arrive, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everyone...”
Another difficulty was disagreements in Moscow itself. The lack of a common military strategy, when some of the boyars considered access to the Baltic the highest priority, and the other advocated the rapid liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, caused heated debate among the tsar's associates. If the emergence of Moscow-controlled Baltic ports redrew the geopolitical and commercial map of Europe, significantly tilting the scales in favor of Ivan the Terrible, then a successful southern campaign would have ensured the protection of the borders from constant raids and enriched the governors and boyars with new land acquisitions.
Sigismund II Augustus, Grand Duke of Lithuania (portrait by Lucas Cranach, 1553)
As a result, the king made concessions and agreed to give the Livonians a truce from March to November 1559. The Order used the resulting respite to its maximum benefit. Unable to cope with the tsar alone, the Livonians decided to invite more participants to the gambling table, drawing Poland and Sweden into the conflict with Ivan the Terrible. However, this intrigue did not help them much. Gotthard von Ketler concluded an agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the Order and the Archbishop of Riga fell under the protectorate of Lithuania. Later, Revel went to the king of Sweden, and the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to the brother of the Danish king, Duke Magnus.
Having received external help, in the early autumn of 1559 the Livonians violated the truce and, with an unexpected attack, defeated the detachment of governor Pleshcheev near Dorpat. However, by the time they reached the fortress, the head of the garrison, Voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, had time to prepare for defense. 10 days of siege and mutual artillery salvos did not produce results, and Ketler was forced to retreat.
On the way back, Ketler undertook a siege of the Lais fortress, which the Streltsy leader Koshkarov, together with a garrison of 400 people, bravely defended for two days, until the Livonians retreated again. The Order's autumn campaign not only failed to produce any results, but also provoked Moscow into resuming hostilities.
1560 Campaign
In the summer of 1560, Ivan the Terrible sent an army of sixty thousand with 40 siege and 50 field guns under the command of Ivan Mstislavsky and Pyotr Shuisky to Dorpat. The target of the subsequent attack was to be Fellin (modern Viljandi), the most powerful fortress of the Order in eastern Livonia.
According to intelligence, the Livonians were transporting a rich treasury to Gapsal (Haapsalu in northwestern Estonia), and the Russian vanguard of twelve thousand horsemen was in a hurry to block the road from Fellin to the sea. By August 2, the horsemen had set up camp a few kilometers from Ermes Castle (now Ergeme in Latvia). Meanwhile, Livonian troops, led by Landmarshal Philipp von Boell, “the last hope of Livonia,” gathered at Trikata Castle to repel the enemy. Also on August 2, three dozen knights went for forage, where they encountered numerous enemy patrols.
Both sides opened fire, one Russian was killed, the rest chose to retreat to the camp. The knights split up: 18 turned for reinforcements, 12 rushed after the retreating ones. When the first detachment returned to the camp, Belle ordered 300 horsemen to be deployed against the Russians, since he had no idea about the number of the enemy, and the arriving knights saw only a small detachment. The Livonian horsemen who set out were quickly surrounded, and when the battle began, many of them fled. As a result, more than 250 knights died, many were captured. Among them was Philip von Bell - the “last hope” did not justify itself, and the road to Fellin was now open.
Siege of Fellin (engraving from the book of Leonhard Fronsperger, 16th century)
The army of Mstislavsky and Shuisky reached Fellin in August of the same year. The siege began. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the leadership of the former master Firstenberg. For three weeks, Russian artillery continuously shelled the walls of the old but strong castle. Attempts by the Livonian troops to lift the siege were successfully repulsed by the archers. When the outer fortifications fell and a fire started in the city, Firstenberg, not wanting to negotiate and surrender, ordered defense in an impregnable castle inside the fortress. However, the garrison, which had not received pay for several months, was not ready for such heroism and refused to carry out the order. On August 21, Fellin capitulated.
The defenders received the right to free exit from the city, important prisoners were sent to Moscow, and the garrison soldiers who reached Riga were hanged by the Livonians for treason. The fall of Fellin practically put an end to the existence of the Livonian Order. In 1561, von Kettler finally transferred his lands to Polish-Lithuanian ownership, which was what the neighbors were counting on. According to the Treaty of Vilna of November 1561, the Order officially ceased to exist, and Ketler received the Duchy of Courland. The division of rich spoils began: Revel (Tallinn) recognized Swedish citizenship, Denmark laid claims to the islands of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa. Thus, instead of one weakened Order, several European states stood in the way of Moscow, despite the fact that the tsar’s army lost the initiative, not having time to capture the ports of Riga and Revel and gain access to the sea.
But Ivan the Terrible refused to retreat. The real war was just beginning.
To be continued
Since then he has owned most of the modern Baltic states - Estland, Livonia and Courland. In the 16th century, Livonia lost some of its former power. From within, it was engulfed in strife, which was intensified by the church Reformation that was penetrating here. The Archbishop of Riga quarreled with the Master of the Order, and the cities were at enmity with both of them. Internal turmoil weakened Livonia, and all its neighbors were not averse to taking advantage of this. Before the start of the conquests of the Livonian knights, the Baltic lands depended on the Russian princes. With this in mind, the Moscow sovereigns believed that they had completely legal rights to Livonia. Due to its coastal position, Livonia was of great commercial importance. Afterwards, Moscow inherited the commerce of Novgorod, which it had conquered, with the Baltic lands. However, the Livonian rulers in every possible way limited the relations that Muscovite Rus' conducted with Western Europe through their region. Fearing Moscow and trying to interfere with its rapid strengthening, the Livonian government did not allow European craftsmen and many goods into Rus'. The obvious hostility of Livonia gave rise to hostility towards it among the Russians. Seeing the weakening of the Livonian Order, the Russian rulers feared that its territory would be taken over by some other, stronger enemy, who would treat Moscow even worse.
Already Ivan III, after the conquest of Novgorod, built the Russian fortress Ivangorod on the Livonian border, opposite the city of Narva. After the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, the Chosen Rada advised Ivan the Terrible to turn to the predatory Crimea, whose hordes constantly raided the southern Russian regions, driving thousands of captives into slavery every year. But Ivan IV chose to attack Livonia. The successful outcome of the war with the Swedes of 1554–1557 gave the king confidence in easy success in the west.
Beginning of the Livonian War (briefly)
Grozny remembered the old treaties that obligated Livonia to pay tribute to the Russians. It had not been paid for a long time, but now the tsar demanded not only to renew the payment, but also to compensate for what the Livonians had not given to Russia in previous years. The Livonian government began to drag out negotiations. Having lost patience, Ivan the Terrible broke off all relations and in the first months of 1558 began the Livonian War, which was destined to drag on for 25 years.
In the first two years of the war, Moscow troops acted very successfully. They destroyed almost all of Livonia, except for the most powerful cities and castles. Livonia could not resist powerful Moscow alone. The order's state disintegrated, surrendering piecemeal to the supreme power of its stronger neighbors. Estland came under the suzerainty of Sweden, Livonia submitted to Lithuania. The island of Ezel became the possession of the Danish Duke Magnus, and Courland was subjected to secularization, that is, it turned from a church property into a secular one. The former master of the spiritual order, Ketler, became the secular Duke of Courland and recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king.
Entry of Poland and Sweden into the war (briefly)
The Livonian Order thus ceased to exist (1560-1561). His lands were divided by neighboring powerful states, which demanded that Ivan the Terrible renounce all the seizures made at the beginning of the Livonian War. Grozny rejected this demand and opened a fight with Lithuania and Sweden. Thus, new participants were involved in the Livonian War. The struggle between the Russians and the Swedes proceeded intermittently and sluggishly. Ivan IV moved his main forces to Lithuania, acting against it not only in Livonia, but also in the regions south of the latter. In 1563, Grozny took the ancient Russian city of Polotsk from the Lithuanians. The royal army ravaged Lithuania all the way to Vilna (Vilnius). The war-weary Lithuanians offered Grozny peace with the concession of Polotsk. In 1566, Ivan IV convened a Zemsky Council in Moscow on the question of whether to end the Livonian War or continue it. The Council spoke in favor of continuing the war, and it went on for another ten years with the Russians outnumbered, until the talented commander Stefan Batory (1576) was elected to the Polish-Lithuanian throne.
The turning point of the Livonian War (briefly)
By that time, the Livonian War had significantly weakened Russia. The oprichnina, which ruined the country, undermined its strength even more. Many prominent Russian military leaders fell victims to the oprichnina terror of Ivan the Terrible. From the south, the Crimean Tatars began to attack Russia with even greater energy, whom Grozny had frivolously allowed to conquer or at least completely weaken after the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan. The Crimeans and the Turkish Sultan demanded that Russia, now bound by the Livonian War, renounce its possession of the Volga region and restore the independence of the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates, which had previously brought it so much grief with brutal attacks and robberies. In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, taking advantage of the diversion of Russian forces to Livonia, staged an unexpected invasion, marched with a large army all the way to Moscow and burned the entire city outside the Kremlin. In 1572 Devlet-Girey tried to repeat this success. He again reached the Moscow outskirts with his horde, but the Russian army of Mikhail Vorotynsky at the last moment distracted the Tatars with an attack from the rear and inflicted a strong defeat on them in the Battle of Molodi.
Ivan groznyj. Painting by V. Vasnetsov, 1897
The energetic Stefan Batory began decisive action against Grozny just when the oprichnina brought the central regions of the Moscow state to desolation. The people fled en masse from the tyranny of Grozny to the southern outskirts and to the newly conquered Volga region. The Russian government center is depleted of people and resources. Grozny could no longer easily send large armies to the front of the Livonian War. Batory's decisive onslaught did not meet with adequate resistance. In 1577, the Russians achieved their last successes in the Baltic states, but already in 1578 they were defeated there near Wenden. The Poles achieved a turning point in the Livonian War. In 1579 Batory recaptured Polotsk, and in 1580 he took the strong Moscow fortresses of Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Having previously shown arrogance towards the Poles, Grozny now sought the mediation of Catholic Europe in peace negotiations with Batory and sent an embassy (Shevrigin) to the pope and the Austrian emperor. In 1581
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