The book consists of four sections. The first reveals the basic principles of the construction and operation of anti-aircraft missile systems, which allows you to better understand the material in the subsequent sections, which are devoted to portable, mobile, towed and stationary systems. The book describes the most common types of anti-aircraft missile weapons, their modifications and development. Particular attention is paid to the experience of combat use in recent wars and military conflicts.
Note OCR: Unfortunately this is the best scan found.
"Hawk" - HAWK (Homming All the Killer) - a medium-range anti-aircraft missile system designed to destroy air targets at low and medium altitudes.
Work on the creation of the complex began in 1952. The contract for the full-scale development of the complex between the US Army and Raytheon was concluded in July 1954. Northrop was to develop the launcher, loader, radar stations and control system.
The first experimental launches of anti-aircraft guided missiles were carried out from June 1956 to July 1957. In August 1960, the first Hawk anti-aircraft missile system with the MIM-23A missile entered service with the US Army. A year earlier, a memorandum was concluded within NATO between France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and the United States on the joint production of the system in Europe. In addition, a special grant provided for the supply of systems manufactured in Europe to Spain, Greece and Denmark, as well as the sale of systems produced in the USA to Japan, Israel and Sweden. Later in 1968, Japan began joint production of the complex. In the same year, the United States supplied Hawk complexes to Taiwan and South Korea.
In 1964, in order to increase the combat capabilities of the complex, especially to combat low-flying targets, a modernization program called HAWK/HIP (HAWK Improvement Program) or “Hawk-1” was adopted. It provided for the introduction of a digital processor for automatic processing of target information, increasing the power of the warhead (75 kg versus 54), improving the guidance system and propulsion system of the MIM-23 missile. The modernization of the system included the use of continuous radiation radar as a target illumination station, which made it possible to improve missile guidance against the background of signal reflections from the ground.
In 1971, the modernization of the US Army and Navy complexes began, and in 1974, the modernization of NATO complexes in Europe.
In 1973, the US Army began the second phase of modernization of the HAWK/PIP (Product Improvement Program) or Hawk-2, which took place in three stages. At the first, the transmitter of the continuous radiation detection radar was modernized in order to double the power and increase the detection range, supplement the pulse detection locator with an indicator of moving targets, and also connect the system to digital communication lines.
The second stage began in 1978 and lasted until 1983-86. At the second stage, the reliability of the target illumination radar was significantly improved by replacing electrovacuum devices with modern solid-state generators, as well as adding an optical tracking system, which made it possible to work in interference conditions.
The main firing unit of the complex after the second phase of modification is a two-platoon (standard) or three-platoon (reinforced) anti-aircraft battery. A standard battery consists of a main and a forward firing platoon, and a reinforced battery consists of a main and two forward platoons.
A standard battery consists of a TSW-12 battery command post, an MSQ-110 information and coordination center, an AN/MPQ-50 pulsed targeting radar, an AN/MPQ-55 continuous-wave acquisition radar, an AN/MPQ;51 radar rangefinder, and two fire platoons, each of which consists of an AN/MPQ-57 illumination radar and three Ml92 launchers.
The forward fire platoon consists of an MSW-18 platoon command post, an AN/MPQ-55 continuous wave detection radar, an AN/MPQ-57 illumination radar and three M192 launchers.
The US Army uses reinforced batteries, but many countries in Europe use a different configuration.
Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Greece, Holland and Germany have finalized their complexes in the first and second phases.
Germany and Holland have installed infrared detectors on their systems. A total of 93 complexes were modified: 83 in Germany and 10 in Holland. The sensor was installed on the backlight radar between two antennas and is a thermal camera operating in the infrared range of 8-12 microns. It can operate in day and night conditions and has two fields of view. It is assumed that the sensor is capable of detecting targets at ranges of up to 100 km. Similar sensors appeared on complexes being modernized for Norway. Thermal cameras can be installed on other systems.
The Hawk air defense systems used by the Danish air defense forces have been modified with television-optical target detection systems. The system uses two cameras: for long ranges - up to 40 km and for search at ranges up to 20 km. Depending on the situation, the illumination radar can be turned on only before launching missiles, i.e., target search can be carried out in a passive mode (without radiation), which increases survivability in conditions of the possibility of using fire and electronic suppression means.
The third phase of modernization began in 1981 and included the development of Hawk systems for the US Armed Forces. The radar range finder and battery command post were subjected to modifications. The TPQ-29 field simulator has been replaced by a joint operator simulator.
During the modernization process, the software was significantly improved, and microprocessors began to be widely used as part of air defense systems. However, the main result of the modernization should be considered the emergence of the ability to detect low-altitude targets through the use of an antenna with a fan-type radiation pattern, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of target detection at low altitudes in conditions of massive raids. Simultaneously from 1982 to 1984. a program to modernize anti-aircraft missiles was carried out. The result was the MIM-23C and MIM-23E missiles, which have increased efficiency in interference conditions. In 1990, the MIM-23G missile appeared, designed to hit targets at low altitudes. The next modification was the MIM-23K, designed to combat tactical ballistic missiles. It was distinguished by the use of a more powerful explosive in the warhead, as well as an increase in the number of fragments from 30 to 540. The missile was tested in May 1991.
By 1991, Raytheon had completed the development of a simulator for training operators and technical personnel. The simulator simulates three-dimensional models of a platoon command post, illumination radar, and detection radar and is intended for training officers and technical personnel. To train technical personnel, various situations are simulated for setting up, adjusting and replacing modules, and for training operators, real scenarios of anti-aircraft combat are simulated.
US allies are ordering the modernization of their systems in the third phase. Saudi Arabia and Egypt have signed contracts to modernize their Hawk air defense systems.
During Operation Desert Storm, the US military deployed Hawk surface-to-air missile systems.
Norway used its own version of the Hawk, called the Norwegian Adapted Hawk (NOAH). Its difference from the main version is that the launchers, missiles and target illumination radar are used from the basic version, and the AN/MPQ-64A three-dimensional radar is used as a target detection station. Tracking systems also include infrared passive detectors. In total, by 1987, six NOAH batteries had been deployed to protect airfields.
Between the early 70s and early 80s, the Hawk was sold to many countries in the Middle and Far East. To maintain the combat readiness of the system, the Israelis upgraded the Hawk-2 by installing teleoptical target detection systems (the so-called super eye), capable of detecting targets at a range of up to 40 km and identifying them at ranges of up to 25 km. As a result of modernization, the upper limit of the affected area was also increased to 24,384 m. As a result, in August 1982, at an altitude of 21,336 m, a Syrian MiG-25R reconnaissance aircraft was shot down, making a reconnaissance flight north of Beirut.
Israel became the first country to use the Hawk in combat: in 1967, Israeli air defense forces shot down their fighter. By August 1970, 12 Egyptian aircraft were shot down with the help of the Hawk, of which 1 Il-28, 4 SU-7, 4 MiG-17 and 3 MiG-21.
During 1973, the Hawk was used against Syrian, Iraqi, Libyan and Egyptian aircraft and was shot down 4 MiG-17S, 1 MiG-21, 3 SU-7S, 1 Hunter, 1 Mirage 5" and 2 MI-8 helicopters.
The next combat use of the Hawk-1 (which had gone through the first phase of modernization) by the Israelis occurred in 1982, when a Syrian MiG-23 was shot down.
By March 1989, Israeli air defense forces had shot down 42 Arab aircraft using the Hawk, Advanced Hawk, and Chaparrel systems.
The Iranian military has used the Hawk against the Iraqi Air Force several times. In 1974, Iran supported the Kurds in their rebellion against Iraq, using Hawks to shoot down 18 targets, followed by the downing of two more Iraqi fighters on reconnaissance flights over Iran in December of that year. After the 1980 invasion and until the end of the war, Iran is believed to have shot down at least 40 armed aircraft.
France deployed one Hawk-1 battery to Chad to protect the capital, and in September 1987 it shot down one Libyan Tu-22 attempting to bomb the airport.
Kuwait used Hawk-1s to fight Iraqi planes and helicopters during the invasion in August 1990. Fifteen Iraqi planes were shot down.
Until 1997, the Northrop company produced 750 transport-loading vehicles, 1,700 launchers, 3,800 missiles, and more than 500 tracking systems.
To increase the effectiveness of air defense, the Hawk air defense system can be used in conjunction with the Patriot air defense system to cover one area. To achieve this, the Patriot command post was upgraded to allow control of the Hawk. The software was modified in such a way that when analyzing the air situation, the priority of targets was determined and the most appropriate missile was assigned. In May 1991, tests were carried out, during which the command post of the Patriot air defense system demonstrated the ability to detect tactical ballistic missiles and issue target designations to the Hawk air defense system for their destruction.
At the same time, tests were carried out on the possibility of using the AN/TPS-59 three-dimensional radar, specially upgraded for these purposes, to detect tactical ballistic missiles of the SS-21 and Scud types. To achieve this, the viewing sector along the angular coordinate was significantly expanded from 19° to 65°, the detection range for ballistic missiles was increased to 742 km, and the maximum altitude was increased to 240 km. To defeat tactical ballistic missiles, it was proposed to use the MIM-23K missile, which has a more powerful warhead and a modernized fuse.
The HMSE (HAWK Mobility, Survivability and Enhancement) modernization program, designed to increase the mobility of the complex, was implemented in the interests of the naval forces from 1989 to 1992 and had four main features. Firstly, the launcher was modernized. All electric vacuum devices were replaced with integrated circuits, and microprocessors were widely used. This made it possible to improve combat performance and provide a digital communication line between the launcher and the platoon command post. The improvement made it possible to abandon heavy multi-core control cables and replace them with a regular telephone pair.
Secondly, the launcher was modernized in such a way as to ensure the possibility of redeployment (transportation) without removing missiles from it. This significantly reduced the time it takes to bring the launcher from a combat position to a stowed position and from a stowed to a combat position by eliminating the time for reloading missiles.
Thirdly, the launcher's hydraulics were modernized, which increased its reliability and reduced energy consumption.
Fourthly, a system of automatic orientation on gyroscopes using a computer was introduced, which made it possible to eliminate the operation of orienting the complex, thereby reducing the time it took to get into combat position. The modernization made it possible to halve the number of transport units when changing position, reduce the time of transfer from traveling to combat position by more than 2 times, and increase the reliability of the launcher electronics by 2 times. In addition, the upgraded launchers are prepared for the possible use of Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles. The presence of a digital computer as part of the launcher made it possible to increase the possible distance of the launcher from the platoon command post from 110 m to 2000 m, which increased the survivability of the complex.
The MIM-23 Hawk air defense missile does not require testing or maintenance in the field. To check the combat readiness of missiles, random checks are periodically carried out using special equipment.
The rocket is single-stage, solid propellant, designed according to the “tailless” design with a cruciform arrangement of wings. The engine has two levels of thrust: during the acceleration phase - with maximum thrust and subsequently - with reduced thrust.
To detect targets at medium and high altitudes, the AN/MPQ-50 pulse radar is used. The station is equipped with noise protection devices. Analysis of the interference situation before emitting a pulse allows you to select a frequency that is free from enemy suppression. To detect targets at low altitudes, use the AN/MPQ-55 or AN/MPQ-62 continuous-wave radar (for air defense systems after the second phase of modernization).
AN/MPQ-50 target reconnaissance station
Radars use a continuous linear frequency modulated signal and measure the azimuth, range and speed of the target. The radars rotate at 20 rpm and are synchronized to eliminate blind spots. The radar for detecting targets at low altitudes, after modification in the third phase, is capable of determining the range and speed of a target in one viewing. This was achieved by changing the shape of the emitted signal and using a digital signal processor using fast Fourier transform. The signal processor is implemented on a microprocessor and is located directly in the low-altitude detector. The digital processor performs many of the signal processing functions previously performed in the battery signal processing station and transmits the processed data to the battery command station over a standard two-wire telephone line. The use of a digital processor made it possible to avoid the use of bulky and heavy cables between the low-altitude detector and the battery command post.
The digital processor correlates with the interrogator’s “friend or foe” signal and identifies the detected target as an enemy or as its own. If the target is the enemy, the processor issues target designation to one of the fire platoons to fire at the target. In accordance with the received target designation, the target illumination radar rotates in the direction of the target, searches for and captures the target for tracking. The illumination radar - a continuous radiation station - is capable of detecting targets at speeds of 45-1125 m/s. If the target illumination radar is not able to determine the range to the target due to interference, then it is determined using AN/MPQ-51 operating in the range of 17.5-25 GHz. The AN/MPQ-51 is used only to determine the missile launch range, especially when suppressing the AN/MPQ-46 range-measuring channel (or AN/MPQ-57B depending on the stage of modernization) and pointing the missile defense system at the source of interference. Information about the coordinates of the target is transmitted to the launcher selected for firing at the target. The launcher turns towards the target, and pre-launch preparation of the rocket occurs. After the rocket is ready for launch, the control processor provides lead angles through the illumination radar, and the rocket is launched. Capture of the signal reflected from the target by the homing head usually occurs before the missile is launched. The missile is aimed at the target using the proportional approach method; guidance commands are generated by a semi-active homing head using the principle of monopulse location.
In the immediate vicinity of the target, a radio fuse is triggered and the target is covered with fragments of a high-explosive fragmentation warhead. The presence of fragments leads to an increase in the probability of hitting a target, especially when shooting at group targets. After the warhead is detonated, the battery combat control officer evaluates the firing results using a Doppler target illumination radar in order to make a decision to fire at the target again if it is not hit by the first missile.
The battery command post is designed to control the combat operations of all components of the battery. General control of combat work is carried out by a combat control officer. He manages all battery command post operators. The assistant combat control officer assesses the air situation and coordinates the actions of the battery with a higher command post. The combat control panel provides these two operators with information about the state of the battery and the presence of air targets, as well as data for firing targets. To detect low-altitude targets, there is a special “azimuth-velocity” indicator, which only receives information from the continuous radiation detection radar. Manually selected targets are assigned to one of two fire control operators. Each operator uses the fire control display to quickly acquire radar target illumination and control the launchers.
The information processing point is designed to automatically process data and ensure communication of the complex battery. The equipment is placed inside a cabin mounted on a single-axle trailer. It includes a digital device for processing data received from both types of target designation radars, friend-or-foe identification equipment (the antenna is mounted on the roof), interface devices and communications equipment.
If the complex is modified in accordance with the third phase, then there is no information processing point in the battery and its functions are performed by modernized battery and platoon command posts.
The platoon command post is used to control the firing of the fire platoon. It is also capable of solving the tasks of an information processing point, which is similar in equipment composition, but is additionally equipped with a control panel with an all-round visibility indicator and other display means and controls. The combat crew of the command post includes the commander (fire control officer), radar and communications operators. Based on target information received from the target designation radar and displayed on the all-round display, the air situation is assessed and the target to be fired is assigned. Target designation data on it and the necessary commands are transmitted to the illumination radar of the forward fire platoon.
The platoon command post, after the third phase of modification, performs the same functions as the command post of the forward fire platoon. The modernized command post has a crew consisting of a radar operator control officer and a communications operator. Some of the electronic equipment of the point has been replaced with new ones. The air conditioning system in the cabin has been changed; the use of a new type of filter and ventilation unit makes it possible to prevent the penetration of radioactive, chemically or bacteriologically contaminated air into the cabin. Replacing electronic equipment involves using high-speed digital processors instead of outdated components. Due to the use of microcircuits, the size of memory modules has been significantly reduced. The indicators have been replaced with two computer displays. Bidirectional digital communication lines are used to communicate with detection radars. The platoon command post includes a simulator that allows you to simulate 25 different raid scenarios for crew training. The simulator is capable of reproducing various types of interference.
The battery command post, after the third phase of modification, also serves as an information and coordination center, so the latter is excluded from the complex. This made it possible to reduce the combat crew from six people to four. The command post includes an additional computer placed in a digital computer rack.
The target illumination radar is used to capture and track the target designated for firing in range, angle and azimuth. Using a digital processor for the tracked target, angle and azimuth data are generated to turn the three launchers in the direction of the target. To guide the missile to the target, the energy of the illumination radar reflected from the target is used. The target is illuminated by the radar throughout the entire missile guidance phase until the firing results are assessed. To search and capture a target, the illumination radar receives target designation from the battery command post.
After the second phase of refinement, the following changes were made to the illumination radar: an antenna with a wider radiation pattern allows illuminating a larger area of space and firing at low-altitude group targets; an additional computer allows the exchange of information between the radar and the platoon command post via two-wire digital communication lines.
For the needs of the US Air Force, Northrop installed a television optical system on the target illumination radar, which allows it to detect, track and recognize air targets without emitting electromagnetic energy. The system operates only during the day, both with and without a locator. The teleoptical channel can be used to evaluate firing results and to track a target in interference conditions. The teleoptical camera is mounted on a gyro-stabilized platform and has a 10x magnification. Later, the teleoptical system was modified to increase the range and improve the ability to track a target in fog. The ability to automatically search has been introduced. The teleoptical system has been modified with an infrared channel. This made it possible to use it day and night. The teleoptical channel was completed in 1991, and field tests were carried out in 1992.
For the Navy complexes, the installation of a teleoptical channel began in 1980. In the same year, the delivery of systems for export began. Until 1997, about 500 kits for mounting teleoptical systems were produced.
The AN/MPQ-51 pulse radar operates in the range of 17.5-25 GHz and is designed to provide radar range illumination of a target when the latter is suppressed by interference. If the complex is modified in the third phase, the rangefinder is excluded.
The M-192 launcher stores three missiles ready for launch. Missiles are launched from it at a set rate of fire. Before launching a rocket, the launcher is deployed in the direction of the target, voltage is applied to the rocket to spin up the gyroscopes, the electronic and hydraulic systems of the launcher are activated, after which the rocket engine is started.
In order to increase the mobility of the complex for the US Army ground forces, a version of the mobile complex was developed. Several platoons of the complex were modernized. The launcher is located on the M727 self-propelled tracked chassis (developed on the basis of the M548 chassis), and it also houses three missiles ready for launch. At the same time, the number of transport units decreased from 14 to 7 due to the possibility of transporting missiles on the launcher and replacing the M-501 transport-loading vehicle with a vehicle equipped with a hydraulically driven lift based on a truck. The new TZM and its trailer could transport one rack with three missiles on each. At the same time, the deployment and collapse time was significantly reduced. Currently, they remain in service only with the Israeli army.
The Hawk-Sparrow demonstration project is a combination of elements produced by Raytheon. The launcher has been modified so that instead of 3 MIM-23 missiles, it can accommodate 8 Sparrow missiles.
In January 1985, field testing of the modified system was conducted at the California Naval Test Center. Sparrow missiles hit two remotely piloted aircraft.
A typical composition of a Hawk-Sparrow fire platoon includes a pulse detection locator, a continuous radiation detection radar, a target illumination radar, 2 launchers with MIM-23 missiles and 1 launcher with 8 Sparrow missiles. In a combat situation, launchers can be converted to either Hawk or Sparrow missiles by replacing ready-made digital blocks on the launcher. One platoon can contain two types of missiles, and the choice of missile type is determined by the specific parameters of the target being fired. The Hawk missile loader and missile pallets are eliminated and replaced with a crane transport truck. On the truck drum there are 3 Hawk missiles or 8 Sparrow missiles placed on 2 drums, which reduces loading time. If the complex is transported by a C-130 aircraft, then it can carry a launcher with 2 Hawk or 8 Sparrow missiles, fully ready for combat use. This significantly reduces the time it takes to get into combat readiness.
The complex was supplied and is in service in the following countries: Belgium, Bahrain (1 battery), Germany (36), Greece (2), the Netherlands, Denmark (8), Egypt (13), Israel (17), Iran (37), Italy (2), Jordan (14), Kuwait (4), South Korea (28), Norway (6), UAE (5), Saudi Arabia (16), Singapore (1), USA (6), Portugal (1 ), Taiwan (13), Sweden (1), Japan (32).
The "Advanced Hawk" air defense system was adopted by the US Army in 1972 to replace the "Hawk" complex developed in the late 50s; it is currently available in the armed forces of almost all European NATO countries, as well as in Egypt, Israel, Iran, Saudi Arabia Arabia, South Korea, Japan and other countries. According to Western press reports, the Hawk and Advanced Hawk air defense systems were supplied by the United States to 21 capitalist countries, and the second option was supplied to most of them.
The "Advanced Hawk" air defense system can hit supersonic air targets at ranges from 1 to 40 km and altitudes of 0.03 - 18 km (the maximum range and altitude of destruction of the "Hawk" air defense system are 30 and 12 km, respectively) and is capable of firing in difficult weather conditions and when using interference.
The main firing unit of the "Advanced Hawk" complex is a two-platoon (so-called standard) or three-platoon (reinforced) anti-aircraft battery. In this case, the first battery consists of the main and forward firing platoons, and the second - from the main and two advanced ones.
Both types of fire platoons have one AN/MPQ-46 target illumination radar, three M192 launchers with three MIM-23B anti-aircraft guided missiles each.
In addition, the main fire platoon includes an AN/MPQ-50 pulse target designation radar, an AN/MPQ-51 radar range finder, an information processing station and an AN/TSW-8 battery command post, and the forward platoon includes an AN/MPQ-48 target designation radar and control station AN/MSW-11.
In the main fire platoon of the reinforced battery, in addition to the pulsed target designation radar, there is also an AN/MPQ-48 station.
Each of the batteries of both types includes a technical support unit with three M-501E3 transport charging machines and other auxiliary equipment. When deploying batteries at the launch position, an extensive cable network is used. The time for transferring the battery from the traveling position to the combat position is 45 minutes, and for collapsing it is 30 minutes.
The US Army's separate Advanced Hawk anti-aircraft battalion includes either four standard or three enhanced batteries. As a rule, it is used in full force, but an anti-aircraft battery can independently solve a combat mission and in isolation from its main forces. An advanced fire platoon can also carry out an independent task of combating low-flying targets. The noted features of the organizational structures and combat use of anti-aircraft units and units of the "Advanced Hawk" air defense system are determined by the composition of the complex's assets, their design and tactical and technical characteristics.
ANTI-AIRcraft MISSILE SYSTEM MIM-23 HAWK (USA)
ANTIAIRCRAFT MISSILE SYSTEM MIM-23 HAWK (USA)
01.03.2014
Egypt and Jordan announced their plans to extend the life of the Raytheon MIM-23 HAWK air defense system by purchasing new missile engines for them, janes.com reported on February 26. On February 25, the US Department of Defense announced that a contract had been signed with Aerojet Rocketdyne to supply rocket engines - 186 for Egypt and 114 for Jordan.
The Hawk is the only type of stationary air defense system in service with the Jordanian air defense; this complex plays a supporting role in the air defense of Egypt, the majority of whose anti-aircraft systems are Russian-made air defense systems.
27.11.2015
The Swedish company Saab has signed a contract with the Swedish Ministry of Defense to extend the service life of the RBS 97 medium-range air defense system, which is in service with two air defense battalions, asdnews.com reported on November 26.
The RBS 97 (Hawk) complex is capable of shooting down air targets at a range of up to 40 km in all weather conditions. The work will consist of upgrading the equipment and software of all system components, including the radar. Modernization will make it possible to maintain the high combat capabilities of the complex until it is replaced by a new system (the Hawk air defense system developed by the American company Raytheon was adopted by the US Army in 1959 - approx. Military Parity).
The contract will require the recruitment of more employees with knowledge in hardware and software engineering, Saab AB said.
Military Parity
ANTI-AIR AIR MISSILE SYSTEM MIM-23 HAWK 
MIM-23 medium-range anti-aircraft missile systems have been produced since 1959 by the American company Raytheon. They are equipped with guided missiles about five meters long and a launch weight of 638 kilograms. The mass of the missile warhead is 75 kilograms. HAWK are designed to engage air targets at ranges from 1.5 to 35 kilometers and altitudes from 60 to 18,000 meters.
The HAWK (Homing All the Way Killer) medium-range anti-aircraft missile system is designed to combat enemy air targets.
Design of the missile system began in 1952, when the US Army began conducting research that was supposed to answer the question of the possibility of creating an anti-aircraft missile system in the medium and low altitude range. Development began in the USA in June 1954 by the American company Raytheon. It was one of the first anti-aircraft missile systems capable of combating low-altitude targets.
The first controlled launch was in June 1956, when the missile shot down a QF-80 target aircraft. The first division of the US Army, armed with MIM-23A HAWK missiles, entered combat duty in August 1960, since then the system has been purchased by more than 20 countries, and is also produced under license in Europe and Japan. Since its introduction, the system has been continuously improved to respond to changing means of attack. The missiles first saw action in the 1973 Middle East War, when Israeli missiles are believed to have shot down at least 20 Egyptian and Syrian aircraft.
The “Improved Hawk” air defense system was adopted by the US Army in 1972 to replace the “Hawk” complex developed in the late 50s; it is currently available in the armed forces of almost all European NATO countries, as well as in Egypt, Israel, Iran, Saudi Arabia Arabia, South Korea, Japan and other countries. According to Western press reports, the “Hawk” and “Improved Hawk” air defense systems were supplied by the United States to 21 countries, and to most of them it was the second version.
The "Improved Hawk" air defense system can hit supersonic air targets at ranges from 1 to 40 km and altitudes of 0.03 - 18 km (the maximum range and altitude of destruction of the "Hawk" air defense system are 30 and 12 km, respectively) and is capable of firing in difficult weather conditions and when using interference.
The complex includes an AN/TSW-8 command post, AN/MSW-11 fire platoon control post, AN/MPQ-50 air target detection radar, AN/MPQ-48 target designation radar, AN/MPQ-46 target illumination radar, radio range finder AN/MPQ-51, M192 launchers with three MIM-23B anti-aircraft guided missiles each. All system equipment is placed on single- and double-axle trailers.
The main firing unit of the Improved Hawk complex is a two-platoon (so-called standard) or three-platoon (reinforced) anti-aircraft battery. In this case, the first battery consists of the main and forward fire platoons, and the second - from the main and two advanced ones.
Both types of fire platoons have one AN/MPQ-46 target illumination radar, three M192 launchers with three MIM-23B anti-aircraft guided missiles each.
In addition, the main fire platoon includes an AN/MPQ-50 pulse target designation radar, an AN/MPQ-51 radar range finder, an information processing station and an AN/TSW-8 battery command post, and the forward platoon includes an AN/MPQ-48 target designation radar and control station AN/MSW-11.
In the main fire platoon of the reinforced battery, in addition to the pulsed target designation radar, there is also an AN/MPQ-48 station.
Each of the batteries of both types includes a technical support unit with three M-501E3 transport charging machines and other auxiliary equipment. When deploying batteries at the launch position, an extensive cable network is used. The time for transferring the battery from the traveling position to the combat position is 45 minutes, and for collapsing it is 30 minutes.
The US Army's separate "Improved Hawk" anti-aircraft division includes either four standard or three enhanced batteries. As a rule, it is used in full force, but an anti-aircraft battery can independently solve a combat mission and in isolation from its main forces. An advanced fire platoon can also carry out an independent task of combating low-flying targets.
The MIM-23A anti-aircraft guided missile is part of the HAWK air defense system. The missile is made according to the tailless aerodynamic design and is equipped with a semi-active radar homing head, a single-stage dual-mode solid-fuel rocket engine, and a high-explosive fragmentation warhead weighing 54 kg with a remote fuse. The MIM-23B modification is equipped with an improved control system and engine, and a warhead weighing 75 kg. The MIM-23C modification has the best characteristics for hitting targets in a difficult jamming environment. In 1990, the MIM-23G modification was created with greater capabilities for hitting low-flying targets. To destroy tactical ballistic missiles, a modification of the MIM-23K with a warhead equipped with 540 ready-made fragments was created. At the beginning of 1996, about 300 missiles were modified to this standard.
It was in service with the US Army until 2002, that is, more than 40 years. During this time, it underwent an extensive modernization program which made it possible to maintain the complex at the level of time requirements. During this time, it underwent an extensive modernization program which made it possible to maintain the complex at the level of time requirements. Initially had a range of 15 miles (25 km), a ceiling of 45,000 feet (13,700 m). After modernization: maximum target interception range 40 km (minimum - 2.5 km), maximum interception altitude 17.7 km (minimum - 30-60 meters).
The complex was widely exported and is in service with Bahrain, Belgium, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Iran, Spain, Italy, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, France, Sweden, South Korea, Japan and others. To increase mobility, a self-propelled version of the M727 launcher was developed, created on the chassis of the M548 tracked transporter. Several such installations are in service with the Israeli army.
CHARACTERISTICS
COMPLEX
Maximum target interception range, km 40
Minimum target interception range, km 1
Maximum target interception altitude, km 18
Minimum target interception altitude, km 0.03
Deployment time from march, min 45
ROCKET
Rocket mass, kg 625
Maximum case diameter, m 0.37
Length, m 5.08
Wingspan, m 1.2
Maximum speed, m/s 900
High-explosive fragmentation warhead
Warhead weight, kg 54
Engine type and model: solid rocket motor
Sources: rbase.new-factoria.ru, A. Tolk. MEDIUM-RANGE ANTI-AIRMISSILE SYSTEMS. Foreign Military Review No. 10, 1989, voenteh.com, lenta.ru, www.dogswar.ru, etc.
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The basis for covering units and units on the march are units of the Gepard self-propelled gun, capable of firing from short stops. The Gepard self-propelled guns are located along the entire length of the column (in pairs, singly) at intervals of up to 2,000 m.
In addition, in accordance with the requirements of West German military regulations, each ground force unit must be prepared to defend itself against attacks by low-flying aircraft and helicopters.
To combat them, non-standard crews of 20-mm twin MK 20 Rh 202 guns are used, which are in service with units, combat support units, maintenance units, headquarters units, as well as 20-mm BMP cannons, 7.62 mm and 12.7 mm anti-aircraft machine guns tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, armored personnel carriers and other small arms. Barrage artillery fire can be used against low-flying helicopters.
The British division in the offensive in the direction of the main attack can be reinforced by the anti-aircraft missile regiment of the Rapier air defense system.
According to the views of the NATO command, the defense will be focal in nature with a significant dispersion of the division's covering objects, both along the front and in depth. Significant gaps are typical between defense elements (between battalions over 1 km, between brigades - up to 3 km or more). For air defense systems, therefore, there will be a large spread of battle formations.
Based on a comparative assessment of the importance of the main elements of the division's battle formation in defense, we can assume that the most reliable cover is required by the main forces of the first echelon brigades, field artillery groups, helicopters at the base sites, the division command post, and during a defensive battle, the second echelon brigade conducting counterattack
In order to ensure the stability of the battle formation and closer interaction with the covered units, the firing positions of batteries (platoons) of Avenger launchers are located in the position area of the brigade and division field artillery grouping, in the area of the division command post and on the approaches to the area where the second echelon of the division is located.
Intervals and distances between platoons while maintaining fire communication in battle formation of the Avenger battery will usually be within 3-4 km. In the absence of fire communication, they can be significantly larger.
Positions for the Stinger air defense systems are assigned taking into account the location of other air defense systems of the division, as a rule, within company strongholds. Based on the experience of the war in the Middle East, military experts from NATO countries believe that in some cases it is advisable to use fire crews of the Stinger air defense system for ambush operations, while starting positions for them can be assigned outside the company strong points in the directions of probable flight of low-flying targets along the folds of the terrain.
Strengths of military air defense are:
the constant presence of an air defense group in the combat order of units and formations;
high combat readiness, allowing for the transfer of air defense systems from lower to higher levels of readiness in a short time;
the quantitative composition and various qualitative characteristics of forces and means make it possible to create mixed groups and provide multi-layered cover for the most important objects;
high rate of fire and fairly short reaction time of the complexes.
3. 2 Organization of long- and medium-range air defense missile systems, theirTotico- technical characteristics, strengths and weaknesses
The air defense missile system was big b ness "Patriot" ( Patriot )
The Patriot air defense system was developed in the USA. It's meant to hit combating aircraft and ballistic missiles for operational-tactical purposes at low, medium and high altitudes in conditions of strong enemy opposition.
"Patriot" is the main ground-based air defense system of the US Armed Forces. This is a long-range, all-weather complex that allows you to destroy air targets in a wide range of altitudes and speeds.
Organizationally, the Patriot air defense system consists of divisions. There are three to five batteries in a division, and two platoons in a battery. The battery contains a multifunctional radar AN/MPQ-53 with a phased array antenna (5.5-6.7 cm), 8 - 5 launchers with a container for 4 (16) missiles and a combat command and control center.
The main fire unit, capable of simultaneously firing at up to 9 air targets, is a battery, including:
Multifunctional phased array radar (AN/MPQ-53) mounted on a trailer towed by a tractor;
Fire control station (FCS) AN/VSQ-104 installed on a truck;
5-8 launchers;
A truck with power generators for the radar and fire control station.
The multifunctional radar provides surveillance of space, detection of targets, their tracking and identification, tracking of missiles and transmission of control commands to them. The radar antenna system includes seven phased array antennas (PAA) and an identification antenna.
The main phased array is designed to emit and receive signals in the airspace survey mode, target detection and tracking; emission of target illumination signal; transmitting a reference signal to the missile, ensuring the operation of the missile guidance head receiver; transmitting rocket control commands. The diameter of the main phased array is 244 cm. It consists of 5,160 antenna elements of the same type.
The AN/MPQ-53(65) radar performs the functions of determining and identifying a target, its trajectory, missile tracking and transmitting control commands. At the same time, up to 75 targets can be tracked and 8-9 missiles can be guided. The radar detection range for air targets is 190 km.
At the divisional level there is an information center, which is a command post that coordinates the fire of both the Patriot system and the complex "Hawk", with which the Patriot has partial unification in terms of components and complete unification in terms of control commands.
All control of the complex is carried out via highly secure radio communications. Therefore, the deployment and collapse time is 20-30 minutes.
The Patriot PAC-2 (PAC-3) missile defense system is single-stage, made according to a wingless aerodynamic design.
The missile's warhead is high-explosive fragmentation with a total mass of 90.7 (23) kg. An engine with an average thrust of 11,000 kg runs on solid fuel for 11 s, giving the rocket a speed of 1,750 m/s. The total weight of the Patriot missile defense system is 906 (320) kg. Designed for overload up to 30 units.
The smaller phased array, located to the bottom right of the main one and containing 251 antenna elements, is intended only for receiving information from the rocket.
The remaining five, with 51 elements each, are antennas for side-lobe compensators, designed to reduce the effectiveness of the enemy’s active interference on the radar.
The fire control station (FCS) is located in a car van and has:
Two duplicate specialized digital computers that automatically control the radar and the missile in flight;
Control units for radiation frequencies and movement of radar antenna beams;
Two indicators with control panels for the operation of the entire air defense system;
Communication equipment with other elements of the air defense system.
The fire control station is serviced by two operators and can automatically control the entire complex of air defense systems associated with target interception. Operators also have Stinger MANPADS.
Communication equipment provides transmission in digital form and by telephone between fire control stations and launchers, radars, as well as between the command of various authorities.
The launcher is placed on a double-axle heavy-duty trailer and towed by a tracked tractor. Each launcher carries a transport and launch container with 4 PAC-2/GEM missiles or 16 PAC-3 missiles inside and is capable of providing single missile launches at short time intervals. Reloading of the launchers is carried out using transport-loading machines (there are six of them in the division).
At the firing position, launchers are located at a distance of up to 1 km, and launchers with PAC-3 missiles are located up to 30 km from the radar. Communication with the fire control station is carried out via a data line and radiotelephone. The launcher is served by a crew of 3 people, which has a Stinger MANPADS. The launcher can be transported by S-141 and S-5A aircraft, as well as by helicopters.
The control panel allows you to rotate containers in azimuth within 110° from the main position. According to the elevation angle, the containers are installed at a fixed angle equal to 38 degrees. The use of a multi-purpose container makes it possible to eliminate missile checks in the field and reduce the number of service personnel.
System management SAM "Patriot"combined. At the initial section of the flight path (first stage), which lasts three seconds, the missile's flight is controlled in accordance with the program entered into the memory of the on-board computer before launching the missile. At this stage, the missile is captured by the complex's radar for its next tracking. At In the second stage of the missile's flight, control is carried out by the command method; when the missile approaches the target, a transition is made from the command method to the guidance method through the missile detection head (third stage).
The guidance system uses the AN/MPQ-53(65) radar, operating in the wavelength range 5.5-6.7 cm. It has a viewing sector in azimuth search mode + 45 o and in elevation 1-73 o. Tracking sector in azimuth guidance mode via missile + 55 o, and in elevation angle 1-83 o.
The detection range with a probability of 0.9 is:
EPR = 0.1 m 2 (rocket head) ... 60-70 km;
EPR = 0.5 m 2 (cruise missiles) ... 85-100 km;
EPR = 1.7 m 2 (fighter) ...110-130 km;
EPR = 10 m 2 (bomber) ...160-190 km.
Target detection time 8-19 s.
The operation of the Patriot missile defense system is as follows:
The multifunctional radar searches for targets, detects them, identifies them and determines coordinates. As dangerous targets approach the interception line, anticipatory meeting points are calculated and a decision is made to launch missiles. All operations are performed in the control system automatically using a digital computer, and data on the order of firing at targets is displayed on the indicator screen.
When approaching a certain line, the launcher turns in azimuth to the pre-empted meeting point and the missile is launched.
If the target is single and located at a considerable distance from the protected object, then one missile is launched. If there are several targets, they are flying in a dense formation and are at a distance, when it is impossible to launch according to the “launch - evaluation of results - launch” principle, then sequential missile launches are carried out at such an interval that they approach a dense group of targets with an interval of 5-10 s (depending on flight altitude).
If the target is a group and is flying in an open formation or there are several group targets separated in space, then the missiles are launched at such an interval that two missiles do not approach their targets at the same time. This is done so that there is time to illuminate the target-missile pair at the last moment of the missile’s approach to the target, since the radar can only serve each missile-target pair sequentially.
Immediately after launch, the missile enters the radar coverage area using the software method for several seconds with a high overload, after which the data transmission line is turned on. The next time the radar beam passes through the angular direction in which the missile is located, the missile is captured for tracking.
At the second stage of guidance, the missile is escorted “on the fly.” At those moments when the radar beam is aimed at the missiles, control commands are transmitted to them. Six missiles can be aimed simultaneously using the command method. DD=70-130 m.
In this mode, the radar operates in the wavelength range of 6.1-6.7 cm. A control signal is sent to each missile at its own carrier frequency - this ensures electromagnetic compatibility of on-board control command devices.
At the last stage of the missile's flight (6 seconds before meeting the target), a transition is made from the command guidance method to the guidance mode with relaying data from the missile to the ground and generating missile control commands on the ground. Illumination of the missile and target in this mode is carried out by a pulse-Doppler signal at a wavelength of 5.5-6.1 cm. The signal reflected from the target is received by the missile and transmitted via a telemetry line from the missile to the radar, where it is processed. No processing occurs on the rocket and no control commands are issued. All signal processing and generation of control commands is carried out on the ground.
The missile guidance method makes it possible to increase the accuracy and noise immunity of air defense systems in relation to active interference and simultaneously point three missiles at different targets.
The radar operation cycle is 1 s (100 ms - search, tracking "on the pass" and command guidance, 900 ms the radar illuminates targets and missiles at the last stage of guidance through the missile, throwing beams from one missile-target pair to another).
Combat capabilities_SAM "Patriot"
The far boundary of the affected area is 100 km from the battery for PAC-2 (25 for PAC-3 missiles) at medium and high altitudes and 20 km at low altitudes. The closest one is 3 km. The upper limit lies at an altitude of 25 (15) km with an available overload of five (n y dist. = 5). The lower boundary lies at an altitude of 60 m.
Reaction time - 15 s. The speed of the targets hit is 30-900m/s.
The system allows launching missiles from one launcher every 3 s, and from different launchers with an interval of 1 s.
Operational diagram of the Patriot air defense system
On the ground, the "Patriot" missile defense division is located in a battery-by-battery position. The batteries are located at a distance of 30-40 km from each other. Upon arrival at the firing position, deployment on the ground is carried out. The radar, control system and truck with power generators are located on an elevated place. The launchers are located at a distance from the control system and radar up to 1 km (with PAC-3 missiles up to 30 km).
The radar is installed so that the antenna plane is directed toward the center of the air defense missile system's sector of responsibility. The coordinates of the radar on the ground and the coordinates of the launcher relative to the radar are specified. At the control center, containers are placed in the required position in azimuth and elevation and then transferred to remote control from the control system. The transfer time from traveling to combat position is about 30 minutes. Clotting time - 15 min.
The system was widely used during Operation Desert Storm, where it did not perform well. Of the 98 Scud missiles launched by the Iraqis, the Patriot hit only 35, expending 153 missiles. Thus, the efficiency of the system was only 0.36 instead of the declared 0.6-0.9. Moreover, to defeat one missile it was necessary to use from 3-4 to 10 Patriot missiles instead of 2, as stated in the technical data sheet. However, all the “hit” Scud missiles successfully hit their targets, since only the body was damaged, and the warhead remained unharmed. The cost ratio is also indicative: the cost of a Scud missile is $250,000, and a Patriot missile is $1 million. The low efficiency of the system forced Raytheon to begin modernizing it. The Russian system is taken as the standard to which the corporation strives S-300V. Raytheon plans to complete the modernization of the complex in 2000.
The Patriot complex is in service with the armed forces of the Netherlands, Germany, Japan, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
Hawk medium-range air defense system
SAM The Hawk, adopted by the US Army in 1959, is currently the main weapon in the joint system. Air defense NATO in Europe. The air defense system is designed to destroy airborne goals at low, medium and high altitudes. In the European theater of operations along the borders with the CIS countries, a continuous strip of the Hawk air defense system has been created from two to three lines with a total depth of 120-150 km.
Organizationally, the Hawk air defense system consists of divisions each with three batteries, consisting of three platoons. The platoon has three launchers (PU), designed for three missiles. In total, the division has 27 launchers and 81 missiles.
The complex includes SAM, 3 launchers, two Radar detection of air targets and target designation, radar illumination, control systemeburning with fire, transport-charging machine.
All elements of the complex are placed on single-axle and two-axle semi-trailers. There is a version of the launcher mounted on a tracked chassis.
The "Hawk" missile defense system is single-stage, made according to the "tailless" aerodynamic design, equipped with a solid fuel engine.
The guidance system is semi-active radar. The missile is aimed at the target by a semi-active radar homing system operating in continuous radiation mode and using the Doppler-Belopolsky effect.
Guidance drives: in azimuth - electromechanical, in elevation - hydraulic.
Detection and target designation radars operate: AN/MPQ-50 - in pulse mode (20-30cm) and is designed to detect targets at medium and high altitudes; the second - AN/MPQ-48 - in continuous radiation mode (3 cm) and is used to detect targets at low altitudes. Target illumination radar AN/MPQ-46 continuous radiation (3 cm), designed to illuminate the target during missile guidance.
The AN/MPQ-51 rangefinder (1.8-2 cm) determines the range to the target in pulse mode.
Fire control equipment provides data processing for firing, controls the operation of the complex and is mounted in a special cabin.
In 1972, the “Advanced Hawk” air defense system began to enter service with the armies of NATO member countries, which has a new missile defense system with a more powerful warhead, improved homing head and the engine. The new complex has increased the range and noise immunity of the radar; a computer has been introduced into the complex, which has ensured an increase in the level of control automation shooting and a television camera for missile guidance in jamming conditions.
The control system of the Usov.Khok air defense system includes an optical target tracking system TAS, which includes a television camera interfaced with a target irradiation radar and video indicators with controls.
The TAS system allows you to track air targets when the radiation radar is turned off and together with it, determine the degree of target destruction and track air targets in conditions of strong radio countermeasures.
The TAS system is controlled by the radiation radar operator.
The Us.Hawk air defense missile system is aimed at a target using the proportional approach method. The essence of this method is that during the entire flight time of the missile to the target, the angular speed of rotation of the missile's velocity vector is proportional to the angular speed of the missile-target line. The method is implemented as follows:
Using a target designation radar, a target is searched and its coordinates are determined. For targets flying at altitudes less than 3,000 m, a continuous radiation radar operates, and for targets flying at altitudes above 3,000 m, a pulsed radar operates. The coordinates of a target (or several targets) are sent to the battery fire control cabin, where the air situation is assessed, targets are selected to engage, and a fire section and launcher are assigned. All these operations are performed automatically using a computer.
After selecting a target and a launcher, target designation data is generated and sent to the irradiation radar and the corresponding launcher. The radiation radar antenna is deployed towards the target; it is captured and automatically escorted. According to the irradiation radar data, the launcher is rotated in azimuth and elevation so that the least overload of the missile is required for guidance in the final section of the flight path. The missile equipment is configured to receive the reference signal from the target irradiation radar and remembers it. Based on this, the rocket can determine its speed.
At the command of the battery commander or automatically at the command generated by the computer, the missile is launched. Target acquisition by the missile's homing head based on radiation radar signals reflected from the target usually occurs before launch. But capture is also possible after launch in the initial part of the trajectory, approximately 15-20 seconds after launch.
The angular velocity of rotation of the missile-target line is measured by the missile seeker coordinator, who carries out continuous automatic tracking of the target based on the radiation radar signals reflected from the target.
The speed of approach of the missile to the target is measured by isolating the Doppler frequency, based on a comparison of the reference signal and the signal reflected from the target.
The reference signal is received by the rocket's tail antennas from the irradiation radar. The signal reflected from the target is received by the missile's homing head.
The missile is equipped with a radar fuse. The moment it is triggered is determined by the distance to the target
The missile can be homing to the source of interference.
Combat capabilities of the Us.Hawk air defense system
The firing zone of the Us.Hok battery is circular, the affected zone is sectoral.
The far border of the affected area is 42 km away from the battery.
The upper limit corresponds to an altitude of 20 km, the lower limit to an altitude of 15 m.
Zone defeats, its dimensions and configuration are determined by the characteristics of the missile, the parameters of the irradiation radar and homing heads, the speed and altitude of the target's flight.
The maximum speed of the Usov. Hawk missile is 900 m/s. The rocket is designed for an overload of 25.
The irradiation station provides tracking of approaching targets with radial velocities from 45 m/s to 1,917 m/s. This allows you to hit targets approaching at radial speeds from 45 m/s to 1,125 m/s. If automatic tracking fails, the missile flies according to “memory” for 8 s. Targets moving away from the battery can be hit in a very limited area. When manually accompanied by an irradiation radar, the AN/MPQ-46 ensures the destruction of helicopters.
The maximum effective engagement range (with a guaranteed probability of 0.8) for the Improved Hawk is 35 km.
The affected area in the horizontal plane, without taking into account restrictions on the maximum lead angle, is a sector with an angle slightly less than 180 degrees.
The position of the lateral boundaries of the sector (the rear boundary of the affected area) is determined by the minimum radial speed of the target equal to 45 m/s. For a flight speed of 800 km/h, this angle is approximately 158 o (79 o in each direction from the axis of symmetry). Beyond the specified rear boundary (the specified sector angle), the missile flies according to “memory” for 5 s.
Due to the limitation on the maximum lead angle at the edges of the specified sector, defeat is impossible. The position of the lateral boundaries of the affected area is determined by the speed of the target and the angle of deflection of the missile coordinator.
The lateral boundaries for target speeds of 900-950 km/h are approximately parallel to the axis of symmetry and for low flight altitudes they pass at course parameters of 20 km.
The upper limit of the effective damage zone lies at an altitude of 17-19 km, respectively, for the maximum and minimum damage range.
The lower boundary of the zone is limited by the closing angles of positions; theoretically, it lies at a height of 15 m. When the closing angle of a battery position is 0.5°, which is almost always the case, the lower boundary lies at least 100 m. A “dead” zone with a radius of 2 km is created above the battery and up to 9 km high.
A mechanically propelled Us.Hawk air defense system battery can simultaneously fire at two targets, and a self-propelled battery can fire at three targets (according to the number of irradiation radars). The system response time is 12 s.
The battery's ability to conduct long-term fire is determined by the supply of missiles and the reload time of the launchers. The Us.Hawk battery has a double ammunition load of missiles: the mechanized battery has 36 missiles (18 on launchers), and the self-propelled battery has 54 missiles (27 on launchers). The reloading time of the launcher is 3 minutes.
During prolonged firing (until all ammunition is used up), the average rate of fire is 3 rounds per minute. The maximum rate of fire of the battery is 3 launches in 10 seconds.
The number of possible launches against a given target depends on the detection range of the target designation radar, heading parameter, target altitude and speed, passive time and time between launches.
The maximum detection range for targets with an effective reflective surface of 1 m2 is:
For AN/MPQ-50 radar (pulse) - 110 km;
For AN/MPQ-48 radar (continuous) - 65 km.
The time between launches consists of the time to evaluate the launch result (10 s) and the flight time of the launched missile, which depends on the target height and the position of the missile’s meeting point with the target.
The order of operation of the air defense system
Targeting radar detects an air target.
Transfer of coordinates to the control unit cabin.
Determination of a specific PU.
Target designation on target illumination radar.
Irradiation (illumination) of the target.
Rocket launch.
Reception by the equal-signal zone of the antenna radiation pattern of the reflected signal and aiming at the target.
The strengths of the Us.Hawk air defense system include: the ability to intercept high-speed targets at low altitudes; high noise immunity of the radar and homing of the missile to the source of interference, good system performance after target detection and high mobility.
Weaknesses of the Us.Hawk air defense system are: the need for stable target tracking for a significant time before launch and during the entire flight time of the missile; high required minimum speed for approaching the target with the radar - 45 m/s; reduction in the combat capabilities of the battery in conditions of rain, snow, dense fog, due to a decrease in the radar range - 3 centimeter range; a significant reduction in combat capabilities with a combination of active, passive jamming and maneuver.
If the location of the Us.Hawk air defense system battery is unknown, then it is advisable to fly in their coverage area using the Cobra and Volna maneuvers or at extremely low altitudes.
Against missiles fired at an aircraft, it is necessary to perform a turn with the maximum possible overload and a vigorous descent to an extremely low altitude, followed by a flight at this altitude for at least 8 seconds (duration of the "Us.Hawk" radar tracking mode according to "memory") . If the heading angle to the SAM starting position is from 0 to 90 o, the turn must be made to the left, if from 270 to 360 o - to the right. At the end of the turn, the aircraft's path should be perpendicular to the launch line. In this case, the radial component of the flight speed relative to the starting position will be the smallest.
On the ground, the "Us.Hawk" division is located in battery formations. The batteries are separated from each other at a distance of 15-20 km. Typically, batteries are located in areas free of natural and artificial obstacles that limit line of sight. They are located mainly at dominant heights.
The stationary position of the Us.Hawk batteries occupies an area of 350-400 m by 250-350 m, on which launch pads with a diameter of about 15 m each, a control position and a technical position are equipped. The launch pads are located from one another at a distance of about 70 m, and the distance between sections is 100-250 m.
Launch sites are usually embanked or buried. SAM launchers at 30-35% of positions are contained under dome-shaped shelters with a diameter of about 10 m. At some positions, the launchers are covered with covers or camouflage nets.
On the territory of European NATO countries there are 123 stationary positions for the deployment of Us.Hawk batteries, of which 93 positions are in Germany.
The "Us.Hawk" battery at the field position occupies an area of 350-300 m2, on which the starting, control and technical positions are equipped.
The battery of the self-propelled battalion "Us.Hawk" can be located in a platoon. The distance between platoon firing positions can be from 1 to 10 km.
The Us.Hawk battery is deployed on the ground after a march in 15-30 minutes (in an unprepared position 50-60 minutes). Battery deployment time is 15-20 minutes. The column of the Us.Hawk battery on the march has a length, depending on the speed of movement, from 120 m to 3,000 m. All elements of the Us.Hawk air defense system can be transported by helicopters and airborne transport aircraft. During combat operations, it is possible to change the firing positions of the batteries of the Us.Hawk air defense system up to twice a day.
The Hawk and Advanced Hawk air defense systems are in service with the armies of the United States, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Belgium, Greece, Denmark, Germany, France, Japan and a number of other countries.
SAM "HASAMS"
The HASAMS medium-range air defense system has been entering service with Norwegian air defense units since 1994 to replace the Us.Hawk air defense system. The new air defense system uses previously developed AMRAAM (AIM-120) air-to-air missiles, modified for ground launch, and a fire control center for the Norwegian version of the U.S. Hawk complex. as well as a new three-dimensional radar AN/TPQ-36A.
The missile defense system is controlled using a combined guidance system: command-inertial in the initial section and active radar homing in the final section. If the target does not make a maneuver, then the missile launcher makes an autonomous flight according to the commands of the inertial measurement unit to the anticipatory meeting point stored in the memory of the on-board computer before launch. When a target maneuvers onto a missile defense system, commands are sent from the ground via the radar to correct the trajectory to a new lead point. Target acquisition by an active radar homing head occurs at a distance of up to 20 km from the meeting point, after which active homing is carried out. Basic technical specifications of air defense systems.
The modified missile defense system is made according to a normal aerodynamic design and consists of three compartments. The main part of the on-board equipment is in the head compartment, on average - a high-explosive fragmentation part with an active radar and contact fuse; The missile defense system has a dual-mode TT engine with reduced smoke generation.
The launcher is mounted on the base of an all-terrain vehicle. In the stowed position, the package of transport and launch containers with missiles is located horizontally. At the firing position, missiles are launched at a fixed elevation angle of the TPK of 30 degrees.
The AN/NPQ-36A MF radar provides detection, identification and simultaneous tracking of up to 50 air targets, as well as guidance of 3 missiles at 3 targets. All station equipment is installed on a towed trailer.
The ARCS fire control center consists of 2 computers and 2 automated workstations that duplicate each other. Start-up can be carried out either automatically or at the operator’s command.
The main tactical unit of the NASAMS air defense system is the battery.
It consists of 3 fire platoons (a common set of SAM-54).
The smallest fire unit is a platoon, the armament of which includes 3 launchers with missiles in transport and launch containers (each launcher has a package of 6 containers), a multifunctional radar with phased array, and a fire control point.
All fire control points for platoons and computers are integrated into an information network in such a way that one of the three radars can replace all the others. The battery command post (located on one of the control posts) can receive target designations from a higher headquarters and provide data on the air situation to subordinate fire control points, as well as to several (up to 8) short-range complexes.
To increase the survivability of the complex, it is planned to disperse the launchers from the positions of the control point and radar over a distance of up to 25 km.
Thus, unlike the Us.Hawk air defense system, the NASAMS air defense system has increased mobility, an increased number of target channels, a high degree of automation and duplication of the control system, a reduced number of vehicles and maintenance personnel.
3. 3 Organization, combat capabilities of Istrian unitseair defense fighters
In NATO countries, fighter aviation is represented by units and subunits. At the same time, in some countries there are special units of fighter-interceptors, in others - squadrons of fighter-interceptors are either part of units for other purposes, or are directly included in formations and formations of the Air Force.
There are special fighter-interceptor units in Germany - a fighter aviation squadron, in Great Britain - an aviation group (in the metropolis), in Belgium and Italy - a fighter aviation wing. In addition, in Italy, fighter aviation squadrons (FAS) are part of mixed air wings. In Greece, air forces are part of air wings, and in Turkey - part of air bases. In Denmark, Norway and Holland, nuclear power plants are included directly in the TAK. Special fighter-interceptor units include two air units. The number of aircraft in squadrons: in the UK and Italy - 12, in Denmark - 16, in Turkey - 20, and in other NATO countries (Germany, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece) - 18 each.
Squadrons consist of 3 x-4 x flights of 4 aircraft.
The combat readiness of the air defense system is determined by the ability of air defense missile systems and air defense fighter aircraft, as well as control and warning bodies, to immediately repel a surprise air enemy.
Alert states in NATO's joint air defense system are generally introduced by Supreme Allied Commander Europe in accordance with an alert system currently called the NATO Warning System. However, in the event of a threat of air attack within the boundaries of responsibility of individual air defense areas (sectors), commanders of OTAC (area air defense) or air defense sector commanders can independently introduce increased levels of combat readiness to subordinate units and subunits before declaring an alert on a NATO scale.
According to the experience of NATO exercises, the state (degree) of combat readiness of the NATO air defense system can be as follows: "Normal" "Alpha", "Bravo", "Charlie", "Delta" ( A , B , C , D ).
State "Normal" (everyday) is introduced automatically after the inclusion of an air defense unit or unit in the combined NATO armed forces. According to NATO standards, in each unit (unit), at least 85% of air defense systems and 70% of air defense fighters included in the combat composition of the joint NATO air defense system must be combat ready. SAM units have 2-3 shifts of combat crews, and for each combat-ready aircraft there are 1.5-2 trained crews.
In peacetime, air defense forces on duty are allocated from among the combat-ready forces and assets.
In daily readiness (“Normal”), each squadron of air defense fighters is assigned two aircraft (10-15%) to the duty forces, which are ready for departure in 5 or 15 minutes. On average, 50% of all air defense fighters on duty are in 5-minute readiness, and the remaining 50% are in 15-minute readiness for departure.
The duty units of the air defense system are allocated 15% of launchers from each division of the Patriot air defense system, Us.Hok - in 20-minute readiness, Nike-Hercules air defense system - in 30-minute readiness for launch.
The remaining units of the air defense system are on 3-hour or more readiness.
In the event of a real threat of air attack or when working out the issues of bringing the joint NATO air defense system to full combat readiness during exercises, the following combat readiness states may be declared to air defense forces and means: “Alpha”, “Bravo”, “Charlie” and “Delta” (A, B,C,D).
When declaring a state "Alpha" The number of on-duty fighters and SAM units of the NATO joint air defense system doubles compared to the daily Normal state. At the same time, 50% of the fighters on duty are in 5-minute readiness, and the remaining 50% are in 15-minute readiness for departure.
With status announcement "Bravo" (no later than 3 days before the start of hostilities) 75% of the units of the Patriot, Nike-Hercules, Us. Hawk air defense systems are transferred to the duty forces (with readiness for launch no more than 20 minutes), and 50% of combat-ready air defense fighters.
When declaring a state "Charlie" (introduced in the event of a real danger of war during the “Threat Anticipation” or “Orange” measures, no less than 36 hours in advance) all combat-ready air defense missile systems and units and 75% of combat-ready air defense fighters are transferred to duty forces, 50% of air defense missile systems on duty units are transferred to full combat readiness, the rest - in 20 minutes readiness for launch.
When entering a state "Delta" all duty units and air defense missile units are put on alert for immediate combat operations, and all combat-ready air defense fighters are put on 5-minute combat readiness for departure.
An analysis of materials from NATO exercises shows that it takes up to 3 hours to transfer 50% of combat-ready air defense systems units that are not on combat duty to duty forces in emergency conditions, and up to 12 hours for all air defense systems.
Possible standards for the allocation of air defense missile systems and air defense fighters to the duty forces (in %) when different states are declared are shown in the table:
Table 17.
The NATO command pays great attention to maintaining high combat readiness and increasing the level of combat training of air defense forces and assets. On the scale of air defense zones and individual air defense areas, combat readiness checks of fighter-interceptor units, air defense systems, control units and radar posts are systematically carried out, as well as periodic scheduled air defense exercises, both on the scale of exercises of the joint NATO Armed Forces, and independently within zones, regions and air defense sectors (up to several exercises monthly).
The number of fighter-interceptors in the NATO Air Force is relatively small. Their ratio to other aircraft in the NATO Air Force as a whole is 1:3.5. The main reasons for this ratio should be considered: the large role assigned to air defense systems and the presence of a significant number of tactical fighters capable of, if necessary, carrying out missions to intercept air targets.
Fighter aircraft are the main maneuverable air defense weapons designed to intercept air targets, mainly outside the fire zones of anti-aircraft missiles.
Fighter-interceptors in the central air defense zone are based in two echelons. In the first echelon, at a distance of 150-200 km from the border with the CIS countries, there are squadrons of the Netherlands and Belgium and at a depth of up to 250 km - tactical fighters of the US Air Force, which are involved in solving air defense tasks.
The deployment density of fighter-interceptors in peacetime is, as a rule, two squadrons per airfield. By the beginning of hostilities, fighter-interceptors are dispersed and are usually based in squadrons.
The following types of fighter-interceptors are in service with NATO fighter-interceptor units:
F-16A - in Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Turkey, Denmark;
F-104G,S - in Italy, Germany and Turkey;
F-4F - in Germany and Turkey;
"Tornado" F-3, "Phantom" F-3, "Typhoon" EF-2000 - in Germany, England:
"Mirage" F-3, 2000, "Rafal" - in France and Greece;
F-5A - in Greece and Turkey.
Tactical fighters can also be used to intercept air targets.
Fighter Interceptor Capabilities
All interceptor fighters are supersonic and all-weather (with the exception of the F-104G,S and F-5). The aircraft in service are mainly 3rd generation aircraft: F-4F, Phantom F-3, Mirage F-1,2000, F-4E. There are 4th generation aircraft: F-16, F-15, Tornado and 4++ Typhoon EF-2000, Rafal.
All-weather fighter-interceptors are equipped with a combined weapons control system designed to detect and intercept targets.
This system typically includes: an interception and targeting radar, a computer, an infrared sight, an optical sight and an autopilot. Interception and targeting stations allow you to receive data on air targets from the control and warning center (post).
The received data enters the autopilot and is displayed in the cockpit. Fire is opened automatically or by the pilot.
Basic tactical and technical data of US and NATO fighter-interceptors
Table 18.
|
ThatRnecessary |
EF-2000 |
||||||||
|
Wingspan, m |
|||||||||
|
Aircraft length, m |
|||||||||
|
Normal takeoff weight, t |
|||||||||
|
Fuel weight main/pb,t |
|||||||||
|
Traction moveselei, t |
|||||||||
|
Rtact. H=500 m, km |
|||||||||
|
Bomb nAload, t |
|||||||||
|
Cannon (stv x cal mm) |
|||||||||
|
"V-V" missilesAIM-9 AIM-7, AIM-120 |
6 AIM |
Onboard radars installed on fighter-interceptors make it possible to detect air targets such as fighters at ranges from 30 to 70 km or more, and to acquire targets for auto tracking at ranges from 20 to 30 km. On 4th generation aircraft, radars make it possible to detect targets at ranges of 120-150 to 300 km and switch to automatic tracking at ranges of 65-90 to 120 km.
All aircraft have radar warning receivers. All fighter-interceptors have a speed of 1,300 to 1,400 km/h at low altitudes, 2,100 to 2,500 km/h at high altitudes and a vertical speed of 180 to 350 m/s.
The tactical range of fighters when solving the problem of gaining air superiority at low altitudes ranges from 400 to 500 km and from 800 to 1,000 km at high altitudes. To increase the tactical range, all interceptor fighters are equipped with additional fuel tanks and are all equipped with an in-flight refueling system.
The armament of interceptor fighters includes air-to-air guided missiles, 20-30 mm cannons built into the fuselage, as well as unguided aircraft missiles. Each aircraft can simultaneously carry from 3 to 8 air-to-air guided missiles. The use of air-to-air missiles against air targets is possible from almost any direction, i.e. from all angles, both belittling and exceeding the goal.
4th generation interceptor fighters (F-15, F-16) have a high thrust-to-weight ratio (exceeds one) and, therefore, have a high rate of climb (up to 350 m/s) at low altitudes.
For the purpose of electronic countermeasures, each aircraft can suspend jamming stations and infrared decoy release machines in overhead containers.
Tactical characteristics of fighter-interceptor weapons
The Air Forces of the USA, England and France are in service with 22 modifications of guided missiles such as Sparrow, Sidewinder, AMRAAM, ASRAAM, Skyflash, Magik, Matra.
Table 19.
Basic tactical and technical data of level “v-v”
|
Characteristics |
" Spa R Row " |
"Sidewinder" |
AIM-132ASR.A.A.M. |
"Phoenix" |
||
|
Missile weight/warhead kg |
||||||
|
D page min/max |
||||||
|
Height |
||||||
|
Warhead type |
Rod/of |
Rod/of |
fragmentation |
of. nAright |
Sterzhnev |
|
|
Nav systemeden |
PA RLGSN |
ICGSN |
Coman-inerts + PA RLGSN |
ICGSN |
Coman-inerts + PA RLGSN |
All these missiles are homing. Guidance occurs either by thermal radiation from the target, or by electromagnetic energy reflected from the target, emitted by the fighter's interception and targeting radar. This kind of missile homing is called semi-active.
Semi-active radar homing systems can automatically switch to the mode of targeting jammers.
enia, perceiving pulsed or continuous radiation reflected from the target in the 1-3 cm wave range, can be aimed at the target from any direction from the rear and front hemispheres in any meteorological conditions.
Missiles with semi-active radar homing headsenia require irradiation of the target by an aircraft interception and targeting radar until the moment of meeting the target, which links the fighter’s maneuver. In addition, they still have insufficient noise immunity, as a result of which they have slightly less guidance accuracy than missiles with infrared heads.
The advantages of missiles with infrared homing heads areIare:
High noise immunity, better pointing accuracy;
Possibility of use at extremely low altitudes;
Free maneuver of a fighter after a missile launch.
These missiles are simpler in design. They can be launched according to data from the fighter's on-board radars or using an optical sight, both above and below the air target.
At night, the launch range of missiles with infrared homing heads is slightly greater than during the day.
Missiles with infrared homing heads also have disadvantages:
dependence of the effectiveness of their use on meteorological conditions and characteristics of the propagation of thermal radiation of the target;
the possibility of their homing at traps with sources of infrared radiation;
the impossibility of aiming them at targets when firing towards the Sun.
For some low-emitting targets in the thermal sector, for example, helicopters, automatic balloons and others, the attack may not take place.
An increase in the probability of hitting targets is achieved by attaching guided missiles to fighter-interceptors with semi-active radar and infrared homing heads.
Guided air-to-air missiles, those adopted for service before 1960 were equipped with high-explosive, high-explosive and fragmentation warheads, and missile launchers released after 1960 are usually equipped with rod warheads (UR Sparrow, Sidewinder). The warheads of all guided missiles developed recently are equipped with non-contact (radar or infrared) and contact fuses. The use of proximity fuses that operate at a short distance increases the likelihood of hitting it. The probability of hitting a target with missiles that have only a contact fuse is lower than that of missiles with proximity fuses, since the probability of a direct hit on the target does not exceed 0.4.
Aircraft guns are available on all aircraft used as fighter-interceptors. The rate of fire of the English 30-mm aircraft gun "Aden" is 1200-1400 rds/min, the French 30-mm "Defa" is 1,400 - 1,500 rds/min, and the American 20 mm six-barreled gun "Vulcan" is 4,000 - 6,000 rounds/min. The effective firing range of aircraft guns is up to 700-800 m. Aircraft guns are aimed at a range of 500-600 m.
Unguided aircraft missiles (NAR) are auxiliary weapons of fighter-interceptors and are intended for operations against air targets from short ranges (maximum range up to 1-2 km depending on angles, altitude, speed of the target and the fighter). The United States and NATO are armed with over 15 types of air-to-air missiles with a caliber ranging from 38 to 127 km. All known NARs, with the exception of the American "Gini" AIR-2A, which has a nuclear charge (TNT equivalent - 1.5-2 kt, projectile weight 360 kg), are equipped with a high-explosive or high-explosive warhead and contact fuses. On fighter-interceptors, NARs are placed mainly in retractable installations, less often - suspended multi-barrel installations of a tubular type. To reach the attack line and calculate the initial data for firing, a weapon control system used for missile defense is used.
The disadvantages of the NAR are its short firing range and low probability of hitting the target.
Controlling fighters in the air
To intercept air targets in the United States and NATO countries, both air defense fighters, which are part of special fighter units and units intended for air defense purposes, and tactical fighters, which are in service with tactical fighter and fighter-bomber units and units, are used.
Air defense fighters and tactical fighters use three basicsVnykh method of combat:
interception from a duty position at the airfield;
interception from an airborne duty position (combat air patrol);
free hunting.
Control of fighter units and subunits in the air is carried out mainly in the automated control system of the Air Force and Air Defense "ACCS" from control and warning centers and posts (TsUO and POO). In addition, this is the department of tactical aviation and AWACS aircraft.
On the ground and in the area of airfields, control of fighter units and subunits is carried out from command posts of air bases and command posts of units and formations.
Depending on a number of conditions fighter control when aiming at air targets can be carried out ways directly, circular management and advance planning.
Direct control - the main method of control. In this case, from the corresponding control points (TsUO, POO), aircraft of the AWACS system, the altitude, course and flight speed of the intercepting fighter, as well as the distance to the target, the number and type of enemy aircraft and the maneuver are automatically indicated to the instruments or by voice to the crew, preventing aircraft collisions.
The fighter is guided from the ground until the target is detected by the on-board radar. After detecting a target, the pilot reports the course and distance to it, as well as the altitude and number of aircraft. It then attacks the target using its radar.
In the ACS, computers installed in the control center (and subsequently in the control center) provide guidance commands directly to the fighter autopilot, while guidance and even attack can be carried out fully automatically, without the intervention of the pilot. Exit from the attack and return to your airfield is also ensured.
Direct control ensures the fullest use of both the capabilities of the fighter itself and its equipment and weapons.
However, has direct control row shortcomings :
The need for accurate and continuous information about the air situation, as well as continuous radio communication between the control center and fighters;
Susceptibility to radio interference of all elements of the control system and the possibility of overloading control channels.
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"Hawk" (HAWK - short for "constantly homing killer") was created by Raytheon for the US Army. The first controlled launch was in June 1956, when the missile shot down a QF-80 target aircraft. The first division of the US Army, armed with MIM-23A HAWK missiles, entered combat duty in August 1960, since then the system has been purchased by more than 20 countries, and is also produced under license in Europe and Japan. Since its introduction, the system has been continuously improved to respond to changing means of attack. The missiles first saw action in the 1973 Middle East War, when Israeli missiles are believed to have shot down at least 20 Egyptian and Syrian aircraft.
The latest model, the M1M-23V "Improved Hawk", has new control equipment, a more efficient warhead, an improved engine and minor changes to the fire control system. Maintenance has become easier because... electronics have become not only smaller, but also much more reliable compared to the 50s. 20th century, when the system was created. The "Advanced Hawk" was adopted by the US Army in the 70s. XX century, many users of the system are modifying it to an improved standard.
Currently, the battery of the "Advanced Hawk" anti-aircraft missile system consists of a pulse-type search radar, a new search radar with a constant wavelength, a rangefinding radar, a battery control station, a high-power target irradiation station with a constant wavelength, three launchers with three missiles each and missile transporters-loaders. The launchers are mounted on a two-wheeled cart that can be towed by a 2.5-ton truck (6x6) or similar vehicle. A self-propelled version of the HAWK has also been created on the basis of a modified chassis of the M548 tracked transporter, designated M727 SP HAWK, but only Israel and the United States have it, and in Israel it has already been withdrawn from service.
The shooting process of the Improved Hawk looks like this. Search pulse radars with a constant wavelength (the second searches for low-altitude targets) constantly inspect the space defended by the battery and, if a target is detected and its identity is determined, transmit its coordinates to the target irradiation radar. The electromagnetic energy reflected from the target is received by the antenna of the missile guidance system, the latter is aimed at the target using this signal. The rocket has a high-explosive fragmentation warhead and a dual-mode solid propellant engine.
Recently, MIM-23B installations received an additional passive tracking system created by Northrop, which monitors a target detected by radars and displays its image on a television monitor. This increases the survivability of the Hawk battery, because allows you to intercept a target even if the signal level decreases. The system can also distinguish between multiple targets close to each other or targets low on the horizon.
The closest Soviet system to the Hawk is the SA-6 Gainful, which is more mobile but has a shorter range. In the US Army, the Hawk should be replaced by the Rauteon Patriot system.
Tactical and technical characteristics of the "Advanced Hawk" air defense system
- Dimensions, m: length 5.12; caliber 0.36; wingspan 1.22;
- Starting weight, kg: about 626;
- Effective height: 30-11 580m;
- Range: 40,000m.
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