Professionals often face common problems. One of them lies in the more specific vocabulary of the Russian language compared to its counterparts in English. The elimination of these inaccuracies involves the use of concretization by specialists. It consists in replacing words that have a rather vague meaning in the source language (hyperonyms) with words with a more precise meaning (hyponyms).
Contextual instantiation
The use of contextual (speech) concretization is justified in cases where it is necessary to exclude repetitions, complete the phrase, and make the text more expressive. These situations justify the changes from a purely stylistic point of view.
- You could hear him putting away his toilet articles. You could hear him hiding his brushes and soap dishes.
Language specification
Linguistic concretization with the replacement of words with a broad meaning by words with a narrow meaning appears as a result of a divergence in the structure of languages. In the language in which the translation is carried out, there may be no lexical units that would have such an extended meaning as the transmitted particle in a foreign language. In addition, their characteristics in style may differ. Translators also use the method of concretization in cases where it is necessary due to grammatical order. As examples, we can offer common situations when nominal predicates are replaced by verbs.
Example
Translation of official papers into Russian may also involve the use of concretization. This technique is used in cases where the original English text contains verbs of movement and speech, for example, say, go, give, take, have, be, make, get and others.
- At the by-election victory went to the Labor candidate. - The Labor candidate won the by-election.
- "So what?" I said. - Well, what is it? I ask.
Definition of the specifics of the verb be, the nominal predicate in Russian is transformed into an English verb.
- The concert was on Sunday - The concert took place on Sunday.
- Not is in the Army - He serves in the army.
Lexical transformations
Inconsistencies in the structure of different languages lead to difficulties associated with the preservation and transmission of the meanings of words when they are translated into another language. The word, as a lexical unit, is part of the lexical system of the language. The semantic or semantic structure of a word is unique for each specific language, and therefore may not coincide in the lexical systems of a foreign language (FL) and the target language (TL). Here the so-called lexical transformations , which can be defined as "deviation from dictionary correspondences" (Latyshev L.K., 1981:180). If such a deviation is detected when translating any word or phrase from English into Russian, this lexical unit is replaced in the TL by another lexical unit that conveys a slightly different meaning compared to what the word has in the original, i.e. lexical transformation takes place.
The appearance of lexical transformations can be due to a number of factors related to the characteristics of a particular pair of languages. Let's consider the most important of them.
First of all, the need to use lexical transformations can be caused by the presence of various signs each object, phenomenon and concept and historically established selection of any one of them to designate the corresponding lexical unit of the language. Since such a designation is based on the specifics of the national culture of a given people, translating a word into Russian may cause some difficulties.
Examples:
- When describing a pattern on a fabric, a seam or brickwork, an Englishman will use the word “ herring-bone”, whereas a Russian would say “ herringbone". The vast forests of Russia, as it were, suggest such a comparison, while for a resident of an island state, the association with the herring ridge will be the most natural.
- iron – iron. The name of this item in Russian is due to its purpose: to iron. The English equivalent reflects the material used in its manufacture.
- eye ball or eye bulb– eye Apple. Here, all three concepts are based on the shape of a specific part of the eye, however, if an apple is chosen as an object for comparison in Russian, in the English version it is a ball or a light bulb.
Regardless of the sign chosen as the main one, in each language an accurate and most acceptable for a given people transfer of the meaning of phenomena and concepts is achieved.
Secondly, the existence of lexical transformations is associated with the ambiguity of words caused by difference in the semantic volume of the word in IJ and PY.
Words that make up a fairly large group, which includes international words, adverbial verbs, verbs of sensation, perception, mental activity, and some others, can have different semantic volumes in two languages.
The word, as an integral part of the language, goes through its own development path, which affects the formation of new shades of meanings, the use and compatibility of the word, its functioning in the language, so the presence of absolutely identical words in a separate pair of languages can be considered an illusion. In most cases, the coincidence of meanings is observed only in one lexico-semantic variant (LSV), although here the volume of the main meaning may vary in relation to the TL, while secondary LSVs demonstrate one or another degree of deviation in different languages.
Example: Multi-valued adjective " sharp” has a rich semantic structure and can be used to describe various phenomena and concepts, each of which corresponds to a separate meaning, transmitted in Russian by two or even three words. The lexico-semantic variants of a given word can describe an object and its outlines, sight and hearing, sound, wind, human speech, and in accordance with the designated concept, different words are used when translating into Russian, which indicates a wide semantic scope of each LSV word.
Adjective " sharp“means: 1) sharp, pointed; polished (about a subject); 2) definite, distinct (about its outline); 3) sharp, subtle (about hearing, vision); 4) sharp, piercing (about the wind); 5) sharp, piercing (about sound); 6) sharp, strong (of pain); 7) caustic, caustic (about words, remarks); 8) sharp, insightful, insightful (about the mind).
When translating a word, its contextual environment is taken into account (in the case of an adjective, a definable noun), based on the analysis of which a choice is made in favor of one or another meaning. contextual , or occasional meaning word is the result of a semantic combination of words, and its translation can be a difficult task. The nature of the semantic context affects the contextual meaning of the word, and the probability of using the word in a particular context depends on its semantic structure. Even the most unpredictable version of the translation, on closer examination, turns out to be not accidental, but determined by the semantic structure of the word. The most striking examples of revealing the essence of phenomena through the contextual use of words can be found in the works of famous poets and prose writers.
The potential meaning of a word is a product of the unique uniqueness of the language, in which paradigmatic and semantic connections operate, revealing the lexical potential of each word. Since the semantic structure of different languages has significant differences, the translation of contextual meanings is based on the possibility or inadmissibility of one or another word usage in the TL.
Example:
- But for me television is an escape. But for me TV is vent. Translation of the word “escape”, which has the dictionary meaning “escape; deliverance, salvation”, is explained by its semantic environment, in which the contextual meaning “vent” most accurately conveys the described situation. And although such a meaning is absent in the dictionary entry, it is implied by the paradigmatic meaning of the word, since any escape - or in this case, an escape from reality - can become a welcome outlet for a person.
Conditionality of lexical transformations difference in word combinations in different languages is the third main reason.
Speaking about the compatibility of words, they usually mean the degree of compatibility of concepts expressed with the help of these words and entering into connections characteristic of a given language. The compatibility of a word is directly proportional to its semantic volume, which allows the word to build all kinds of connections with other lexical units, which means that it provides the translator with more opportunities to search for suitable translation options.
Any language has its own compatibility norms, which, as a rule, do not coincide with the corresponding norms of other languages due to their historical, geographical and cultural conditionality.
Examples:
- Poor health- weak health, power of speech- gift speech, to pay a visit - apply visit.
- fish bite at bait. - Fishing for the bait.
- A mission carried him early life to Italy. The vocation brought him at a young age to Italy.
The formation and development of the lexical system of a language leads to the formation of language-typical ways of using words (usage) associated with the perception of the world around that is characteristic of a given culture.
Examples:
- Train going down- trains going to southern direction.
- Parliament will rise next week. – Parliament session closes next week.
As a result, specific phrases, speech formulas and clichés are born that correspond to the norms of the language and are understandable to its native speakers. You can give countless examples of such combinations that are complete and do not allow the replacement of existing or the introduction of new components, as opposed to phraseological units.
A separate group of traditional combinations is made up of various clichés containing elements of an order, requirements, or having a broader meaning. When translating, they are replaced by combinations that are adequate to the target language.
Examples:
- Use only fresh water to drink. - Drink only fresh water.
- no thoroughfare! – Directions closed!
- Take care or you will be visited with punishment from heaven! - Watch out, or you will be punished by heaven!
- reports say that thousands of people demonstrated in support of the opposition parties’ demand for radical reforms. - reported that thousands of people came out in support of opposition parties demanding radical reforms.
The combination of different types of lexical transformations in one sentence complicates their identification and classification. However, eight of the most common varieties of lexical transformations , which look like this:
- Specification
- Generalization
- Compensation
- Reception of lexical addition
- Reception of lexical omission
- Reception of semantic development
- Holistic transformation technique
- Antonymic translation
- Grammatical transformations
- Translation from one language to another is impossible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations are primarily the restructuring of a sentence (changing its structure) and all kinds of substitutions - both syntactic and morphological. Grammatical transformations are caused by various reasons - both purely grammatical and lexical in nature, although grammatical factors play the main role, i.e. differences in the structure of languages.
When comparing the grammatical categories and forms of the English and Russian languages, the following phenomena are usually found: 1) the absence of a particular category in one of the languages; 2) partial match; 3) complete match. The need for grammatical transformations naturally arises only in the first and second cases. In Russian, in comparison with English, there are no such grammatical categories as articles or gerunds, as well as infinitive and participial complexes and an absolute nominative construction. Partial coincidence or discrepancy in the meaning and use of the corresponding forms and constructions also requires grammatical transformations. This includes such phenomena as a partial mismatch in the category of number, a partial mismatch in the forms of a passive construction, an incomplete match in the forms of the infinitive and participle, some differences in the expression of modality, etc.
First of all, we will focus on the article, because the article (both definite and indefinite), despite its extremely abstract meaning, often requires semantic expression in translation. As you know, both articles have a pronominal origin: the definite article comes from the demonstrative pronoun, and the indefinite article comes from the indefinite pronoun, which goes back to the numeral one. These original meanings of the articles sometimes appear in their modern usage. In such cases, their lexical meaning must be conveyed in translation, otherwise the Russian sentence would be incomplete and inaccurate, since the denotative meaning of the articles is semantically an integral part of the entire semantic content of the sentence (3). Its historical connection with the numeral one in the following example is very clear:Yet H. G. (Wells) had not an enemy on earth. (G. B. Shaw)
However, Herbert did not have a single enemy in the world.
The meaning of the definite article also often requires transmission in translation, especially when it comes before a numeral.
Only in the fields where talent cannot be hidden have the young conquered - the theatre, music, football, computers, physics, fashion. ("Daily Mail")
Young people are promoted only in those cases when it is impossible to hide natural talent (meaning theater, music, football, electronics, physics, fashion).
From all the above translations, it is clear that ignoring the lexical and sometimes grammatical meaning of the article in translation would lead to an incomplete or inaccurate transfer of content.
There are no infinitive complexes in Russian, which are so common in English. Consider only the translation of the infinitive complex with the preposition for.
On its return journey the spacecraft must be accelerated to some 25,000 m.p.h. for it to enter the earth's orbit. ("The Times")
On reentry, the spacecraft's speed must be brought up to about 25,000 miles per hour in order for it to enter Earth orbit.
In this case, the infinitive complex is translated by a clause of purpose.
However, very often grammatical transformations are also necessary in the transfer of the corresponding forms and constructions due to some discrepancies in their meaning and use. Such discrepancies are observed, for example, in the use of the category of number.
United Nations Secretary General U Thant has strongly criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa. ("Morning Star")
UN Secretary-General U Thant severely criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa.
The noun "politics" does not have a plural, because the word "politics" is the plural form of the noun "politician" - a politician.
As for uncountable nouns, especially those that express abstract concepts, the number of mismatches may be higher here. For example: ink - ink, money - money, watch - watch, news - news, and vice versa: to keep the minutes - keep a record, to live in the suburbs - live in the suburbs, on the outskirts - on the outskirts, grapes - grapes, shrimp - shrimp, etc.
The discrepancy is also found in some cases of the use of the infinitive. The Russian infinitive has neither a perfect nor a continuous form.
Thus, all the phenomena considered - the absence of an appropriate form, partial coincidence, differences in the nature and use of the form - necessitate grammatical transformations in translation. Grammatical transformations can be divided into two types: permutations and substitutions.
Concretization and generalization as methods of translation transformation
Specification
Among other methods of translation transformation, many scholars distinguish specification. And despite the differences in views on which of the types this technique belongs to and how to call it (not everyone classifies concretization as a lexical transformation, A.D. Schweitzer, for example, called it a hyponymic transformation), the essence of this technique by different authors similar. What is its meaning, and how the technique is implemented in practice, will be discussed in this article.
In the process of translation, one often encounters the fact that the vocabulary of the Russian language is more specific than its similar lexical units in the English language. Therefore, the concretization technique has become widespread, the essence of which is to replace a word that has a rather lengthy meaning in the source language with a word with a more specific meaning.
The prevailing distribution over contextual concretization is linguistic concretization, in which the replacement of a word with a broad meaning for a word with a narrower one is determined by differences in the structure of the two languages. The reasons for these discrepancies may also be the absence of a lexical unit in the target language, the meaning of which is as detailed as in the source language. Differences can also be contained in stylistic characteristics or in the requirements of grammatical order, for example, in the urgency of syntactic transformation in the form of replacing a nominal predicate with a verb.
In most cases, when translating into Russian, English verbs of speech, as well as verbs of motion, such as: say, be, have, get, take, give, make, come, go, etc .:
- At the by-election victory went to the Labor candidate. - The Labor Party candidate won the by-election.
- The rain came in torrents. - It rained heavily.
- "So what?" I said. (J. Salinger "The Catcher in the Rye"). - Well, so what? I ask.
- Didn't tell me to come right over, if I felt like it. (J. Salinger "The Catcher in the Rye") - He ordered me to come at least now, if necessary.
Here you can provide examples of changing a Russian nominal predicate into an English verb, which always requires a definition of clarity for the verb be:
- She is at school - She goes to school;
- The concert was on Sunday - The concert took place on Sunday.
- Not is in the Army - He serves in the army;
The use of the method of contextual or verbal specification occurs in cases where it is necessary to complete a phrase, when it is necessary to avoid repetition, achieve greater expressiveness, etc. That is, in situations where changes are dictated by purely stylistic considerations. For instance:
- You could hear him putting away his toilet articles. (J. Salinger "The Catcher in the Rye") - He could be heard putting away his soap dishes and brushes.
Generalization
The exact opposite of concretization is generalization. The essence of this technique is the replacement of a specific concept by a generic one, a particular concept by a general one. Due to the fact that the words of the English language are more abstract than similar Russian words, when translating from English into Russian, generalization is much less used than concretization. However, it cannot do without its use, for example.
Translation transformations- these are those numerous and qualitatively diverse interlingual transformations that are carried out to achieve translation equivalence ("translation adequacy") despite the differences in the formal and semantic systems of the two languages.
Translation transformations are essentially interlingual operations of "reexpression" of meaning.
The methods of logical thinking, with the help of which we reveal the meaning (meaning) of a foreign word in the context and find its correspondence in another language that does not coincide with the dictionary one, are usually called lexical transformations. Semantically, the essence of transformations is to replace the translated lexical unit with a word or phrase of a different internal form, actualizing that component of a foreign word (that seme) that is to be implemented in a given context.
Transformation techniques are creative, but if the result of equivalence acquires an absolute value due to its optimality, it can be recorded in the dictionary as an equivalent.
Although it is not always possible to clearly classify every example of translation due to the interweaving of categories, three types of lexical transformations are usually distinguished: additions, deletions, and substitutions.
Additions. This technique is connected with the fact that what is clear to native speakers of the source language needs to be added when translating into another language in order not to go beyond the norm of the target language. We are talking about words that do not have the character of a semantic addition, for example:
I saw a face watching me out of one of the upper windows. - I saw a face human watching me from one of the upper windows.
... 125 passengers and 5 crew - 125 passengers and 5 members crew.
Omissions. This technique is used in case of information redundancy, which is a violation of the norms of the target language.
He leaned forward to take the paper - He leaned over to take the paper.
Sometimes omissions in translation are caused by differences in the structure of sentences, when in the TL there is no need for a complete set of all members of the sentence.
The first thing I did was to give her a call. The first thing I did was call her.
He took his bag in his right hand - He took the bag in his right hand.
The technique of omission, however, does not imply that it is possible to omit any places that are difficult in terms of translation. The meaning of the sentence should not be distorted.
Replacements. This technique is widely used in translation in cases where there are no direct dictionary matches. In this case, you need to find a translation option that is suitable for this context.
Privacy was impossible. “It was impossible to be alone.
There are seven different types of contextual replacement: differentiation (of meanings), concretization (of meanings), generalization (of meanings), semantic development, antonymic translation, holistic transformation, compensation for losses in the translation process.
1. differentiation (of meanings). Many words with broad FL semantics do not have a full correspondence in TL. A bilingual dictionary usually gives a number of partial variant matches, each of which covers only one of the particular meanings of a foreign word. However, even all dictionary correspondences in their totality do not fully cover the semantics of the word FL. Differentiation without concretization is possible when it is necessary to convey the meaning of a broad abstract concept without clarifying it in translation. The concretization of what is deliberately veiled in the original is considered a deviation from translation norms. Affection is the best substitute of love. When translating, none of the dictionary matches (affection, affection, love) will work, because if the author had in mind attachment, he would have chosen the word attachment. The rather vague meaning of the word affection can be conveyed mental inclination or mental disposition. This example shows that the differentiation of meanings is possible without specifying them.
2. concretization (values) - the use in translation of a word with a narrower meaning than the word in the original. As a rule, the vocabulary of the Russian language is more specific than the corresponding lexical units of the English language. This is the main reason why, when translated into r. one has to resort more often to narrowing, or concretization of meanings, than to the reverse method - expansion, or generalization. Concretization is always accompanied by semantic differentiation and is impossible without it.
The simplest cases of concretization are reduced to choosing the desired value of all those listed in the dictionary entry. Thus, many English terms of kinship are less differentiated than Russian ones, and concretization is inevitable. mother-in-law (mother-in-law, mother-in-law); sister-in law (daughter-in-law is the brother's wife, sister-in-law is the wife's sister, sister-in-law is the husband's sister), etc.
Most often, we are dealing with concretization in the transfer of polysemantic words. Polysemy in A.I. much more developed than in Russian. For example, app. good has many meanings that are implemented in combination with various words:
good water
flowers unfaded, still fresh flowers
lungs healthy lungs
excuse good reason
citizen
All these are cases of linguistic normative concretization, recorded in the dictionary. The so-called desemantized words (that have lost their own meaning) need it even more, the material meanings of which are so blurred that they often have a pronominal character. No dictionary is able to provide for all uses of a word with branched semantics. No matter how many meanings are fixed behind words such as thing, stuff, affair, matter, case, piece, record, place and others, it is impossible to predict what they will be correlated with in a real speech context.
it's gripping stuff is an exciting book (detective advertisement)
Mother entered, carrying the tea things. Mom came in with tea utensils
We are going to have a secretary. But we don't want some flighty young thing sitting behind that desk powdering her nose and making eyes at everybody. We'll have a secretary. all eyes.
While concretization and generalization - two opposite methods, which are, as it were, at two opposing poles, from one to the other in translation practice is one step. The same desemantized words, due to their pronominal functions, very often in Russian translations turn into real pronouns or are omitted altogether (which can be considered an extreme degree of generalization):
Things they had learned to ignore in each other resurfaced. What they used to be able to ignore in each other, now floated to the surface.
She didn't want to miss a thing. She nothing didn't want to miss out.
The reason for concretization of verbs can also be not structural and systemic differences in languages, but stylistic norms of narration. Yes, verbs to say and to tell can be translated not only by verbs accompanying statements like answered, asked, noticed, informed, objected, but also with verbs that go beyond their own speech: sympathized, commanded, threatened etc. Most often this is done to avoid the monotony of the narration, to create more naturalness and liveliness of the text.
Once again, the enormous role of context when using the technique of concretization should be emphasized - only it can serve as a reliable support for the correct choice of a particular word or phrase.
Generalization (of values).
Generalization- the reverse concretization technique consists in replacing the original concept with a broader one (private general, specific - generic). It is more often used when translating from Russian into English. English words are more often more abstract than Russian words related to the same concept.
Often generalization is used in accordance with the stylistic norms adopted in the language, due to the existence of habitual turns of speech or clichés. So, although in Russian there is a relatively exact correspondence to the word weathermanmeteorologist(“relatively”, because there is no indication of gender in it - both a man and a woman can be a meteorologist, which is already some generalization), in weather forecasts we usually resort to even more “grammatical generalization” - the use of the plural:
The weatherman says we can expect another week of rain.
According to the message weather forecasters rainy weather will continue for another week.
Or another example. In works of fiction in Russian, it is not customary to give such precise indications of height, weight, body parts, various digital measurements, as is done in English fiction:
He was not 6 feet 3 inches tall - he was tall.
Sometimes these two opposite methods - concretization and generalization - do not exclude each other at all, sometimes it is not easy to decide which one should be preferred:
It won't cost you a thing.
1. It won't cost you a penny (specification).
2. It will cost you nothing (generalization).
Regardless of the reasons for concretization and generalization, these are techniques that are practically impossible to do without when translating.
4. Semantic development (logical development)- this is a kind of translation transformations in which one concept is replaced by another based on their contiguity or logical proximity. In other words, there is a replacement of dictionary correspondence in translation with contextual correspondence, logically related to it. At the same time, the main idea of the statement remains unchanged, since the concepts are closely related to each other.
Such substitutions are also possible within the same language. Compare, for example, a number of the following synonymous phrases: this is a very popular book, this book is in great demand, this book is a great success, everyone reads this book etc. Of course, when moving from one sentence to another, there is a slight semantic shift, but the commonality of meaning is preserved in them. A similar transformation mechanism underlies interlingual logical development. Thus, the very nature of language determines the possibility and even the regularity of this technique.
If within one language we use such substitutions in order to convey the desired semantic nuance with absolute accuracy or to avoid repetition, in interlingual paraphrasing this technique is often the only possible means to preserve the original meaning. After all, the norms of the target language, the requirements of the context, stylistic and socio-cultural factors almost always prevent the transfer of the original form of expression of thought into another language.
Logic development- this is the establishment of connections, the throwing of a kind of "semantic bridge" between logically close concepts. All the variety of connections can be reduced to three types: 1) causal; 2) metonymic 1 (that is, based on the contiguity of concepts); 3) paraphrastic (based on the reception of paraphrase 2). Let's consider them in the given sequence.
Globalization is a term for a situation of change in all aspects of society's life under the influence of a global trend towards interdependence and openness. G. is a recognition of the growing interdependence of the modern world, the main consequence of which is a significant weakening (some researchers even insist on destruction) of national state sovereignty under the pressure of the actions of other subjects of the modern world process - primarily transnational corporations and other transnational entities, for example, international companies, financial institutions, ethnic diasporas, religious movements, mafia groups, etc.
G. is a complex trend in the development of the modern world, affecting its economic, political, cultural, but primarily information and communication aspects.
The globalization of socio-cultural processes and phenomena of different directions forms a single world, a single information and educational space, promotes the interpenetration and mutual enrichment of cultures. Culture is the environment in which a person finds himself from the moment of his birth, surrounds him with his specific objects and ways of acting with them (cultural facts), sets the foundations for his “pro-images”.
Since the end of the 20th century, globalization has increasingly manifested itself as a sociocultural phenomenon. This is due to the emergence of a number of relatively new trends in the development of culture in the context of globalization:
1) an increase in the speed and scale of sociocultural changes in general;
2) the dominance of integrative tendencies in culture against the background of the aggravation of the tendencies of its differentiation and diversification in various social systems;
3) increasing the intensity of cultural interactions in the information society;
4) the onset of Western culture, often in very aggressive forms (cultural expansion, Westernization);
5) the growth of the cultural industry in connection with the emergence of TNCs in the production of cultural goods and services;
6) strengthening the influence of globalization on the value-normative foundations of national cultures in the process of modernization of societies;
7) globalization of symbols and universals of culture, especially mass culture;
8) the aggravation of the need for cultural identification in these conditions;
9) expansion of the influence of the English language in modern means of communication and communication.
In particular, under these conditions, mass culture not only corrects its traditional anti-entropic function, but also sometimes threatens the implementation of cultural identity in the conditions of unification of values, language, standardization and universalization of lifestyle (clothing, life, information), music, cinema, fashion, etc. e. The dominant (globalizing) culture, using its technological and information superiority, imposes its values, norms and standards on other cultures. This leads to the leveling of national characteristics, the cultural "recoding" of the life of many countries and peoples. All this determines the acute practical relevance of the topic under consideration.
Awareness of global problems was quite clearly manifested at the beginning of the 20th century. This happened at a certain stage in the development of mankind - mankind realized the unity and indivisibility of earthly life. The essence of global problems is that humanity, through its activities, violates the balance of the biosphere and the mechanisms of its self-regulation.
Globalistics is a complex scientific direction that studies the manifestations, origins, as well as ways and means of solving global problems.
Global problems - problems and situations that affect the living conditions and activities of people, contain a threat to the present and future. These problems cannot be solved by the forces of one country; they require jointly worked out actions.
Global problems:
1. POLITICAL
Prevention of nuclear war;
Ensuring sustainable development of the world community;
Preservation of the world, etc.
2. SOCIAL CHARACTER
demographic problem;
Interethnic relations;
Crisis of culture, morality;
Democracy deficit;
Health protection, etc.
3. NATURAL AND ECONOMIC CHARACTER
Ecological; - Raw materials, etc.
Energy;
the oceans;
Food;
4. MIXED CHARACTER
Regional conflicts;
Terrorism;
Technological accidents, etc.
Features of global problems:
- Universal character
- Have planetary scales of manifestation
- They are characterized by the severity of manifestation
- Influence the future of humanity as a species
- They are characterized by extraordinary dynamism
- Are complex
All global problems are closely related to each other (see figure). Demographic and food problems are connected both with each other and with environmental protection. Family planning in some countries will make it possible to quickly free ourselves from hunger and malnutrition, and the progress of agriculture will ease the pressure on the environment. Food and resource problems are associated with overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. Improved nutrition and a more sensible use of resource potential lead to higher living standards, and so on.
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