Ancient philosophy is a set of philosophical teachings that existed in ancient Greece and Ancient Rome since the 7th century. BC. to the 6th century AD until the closing of the last philosophical school in Athens by Emperor Justinian in 532 - the Platonic Academy. Ancient philosophy had a huge impact on European culture. It was in antiquity that the central problems of philosophical knowledge were formulated and the main methods for solving them were laid down.

The initial period of development of ancient philosophy can be called redphilosophical or theogonic(VII century BC – VI century BC). It is associated with the transition from myth in its original form to the systematized and rationalized form of the heroic epic (Homer and Hesiod), which tried to answer the fundamental needs of man about the origin of the universe and his place in it, describing the process of the birth of the world as the sequential birth of gods (divine geneology brought system and order to the worldview). The era of anthropomorphic Olympian gods symbolizes the harmonization of the cosmos. This determined the artistic understanding of space as symmetry, harmony, measure, beauty, rhythm.

Actually ancient philosophy goes through the following four stages.

First period– pre-Socratic (natural philosophical, or cosmological), which dates back to the 7th century. BC. – mid-5th century BC. is based on the transition of cosmogony to non-mythological rationalized teachings, which are already associated with interest in the problems of nature (“physis”) and the cosmos as a living and self-moving whole. Philosophers of this time were busy searching for the origin (substance) of all things (Miletus school). The materialistic direction is associated, first of all, with the representatives of atomism - Leucippus and Democritus. The main opposition of this period was the confrontation between the teachings of Heraclitus (objective dialectics) and the philosophers of the Eleatic school Parmenides and Zeno (who argued that movement is unthinkable and impossible). An idealistic direction arose in the teachings of Pythagoras.

Second period– classical (Socratic), which dates from the middle of the 5th century. BC. until the end of the 4th century. BC, when the focus is transferred from space to man, making him the main subject of his research and considering him as a microcosm, trying to determine his essence, and also draws attention to ethical and social problems (sophists, Socrates and Socratic schools). Therefore, this period is sometimes defined as an “anthropological revolution” in ancient philosophy. The first philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle appear. During this period, two main opposing philosophical systems were formed - the “line of Democritus” (materialism) and the “line of Plato” (idealism).

Third period – Hellenistic, dates back to the end of the 4th century. BC. – II century BC. Initially, this period was associated with the understanding of philosophy, first of all, as a moral teaching that develops norms and rules of human life (Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism) and then the knowledge of the Divine becomes the main object of philosophy (Peripatetism, which in the future became the theoretical basis of Catholicism, and Neoplatonism is the theoretical foundation of Orthodoxy).

The fourth period – Roman (1st century BC – 5th century AD). During this period, the merger of ancient Greek and ancient Roman philosophy into one - ancient philosophy; interest in the philosophical explanation of nature is waning and problems of man, society, and the state are being actively developed; Stoicism flourishes. Prominent representatives of this period are Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Cicero, Lucretius Carus, Boethius, as well as the Roman Stoics, skeptics, and Epicureans.

ABOUTfeaturesancient philosophy.

1. Cosmocentrism. The theoretical basis of ancient philosophy is the idea of ​​the cosmos as a sensory-material, corporeal, intelligent, beautiful being, which is set in motion by the cosmic soul, controlled by the cosmic mind, and itself is created by a super-intelligent and super-spiritual primal unity and determines the laws of the world and the fate of man. Philosophical concepts of nature are called natural philosophy. The world, as a rule, was considered as a natural integrity in which constant changes and interconversions occur (spontaneous materialism). Due to the lack of specific data, connections and patterns unknown to philosophers were replaced by fictitious, invented ones (speculative in nature).

2. Anthropocentrism. Man was considered as a microcosm (small cosmos), similar to a macrocosm (large cosmos), and therefore as a corporeal and intelligent being. As a result of such attitudes, aestheticism, that is, the desire for beauty in all spheres of life, became characteristic of ancient culture.

3. Rationalism. Most ancient authors were convinced of the knowability of the world. During this period, the idea of ​​two levels of knowledge developed - sensory (sensations, perceptions) and rational (mind, logical reasoning). It was argued that it is rational knowledge that makes it possible to obtain the truth, and attempts at a rationalistic solution to it marked the beginning of the formation of philosophy itself.

The formation of ancient philosophy. Ancient atomism.

The emergence of ancient philosophy is associated with overcoming mythological thinking, the main features of which are:

Explanation of all phenomena by the actions of supernatural forces and their will;

lack of boundary between the real and imaginary world;

assessment of all phenomena as friendly or hostile to humans;

lack of interest in theoretical analysis of phenomena and processes.

The end of the mythological era with its calm stability came in the Axial Age as a result of the struggle of rationality and rationally verified experience against myth. Philosophy originates in Ancient Greece as an attempt to unravel the mystery of the world. An important condition for the victory of the Greek logos over myth was the formation of a polis form of social life, which created the precondition for personal freedom of a person, complete openness of all manifestations of social and spiritual life. It replaced the hierarchical relations of domination and subordination with a new type of social communication, which was based on the equality of citizens, on the rejection of rigid traditional norms of human behavior, and most importantly, on the formation of a rational-theoretical way of thinking.

During the formation of ancient philosophy, special attention was paid to the search for the foundations of being. Representatives of spontaneous-materialistic Milesian school(Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, who lived in the 7th-6th centuries BC in the city of Miletus), looked for the foundations of being: water - from Thales, apeiron (unformed, quality-free matter) - from Anaximander, air - from Anaximenes. According to the teachings of these ancient thinkers, as a result of the combination of elements, that is, their connection and separation in various proportions, all things in the world are formed and destroyed. On this basis, they tried to give a holistic picture of the world. The origin, representatives of the Milesian school, gives rise to all the diversity of existing things and embraces everything that exists.

Pythagoras(approx. 571-497 BC), who created his own philosophical school - the union of the Pythagoreans, and asserted: “I am not a sage, but only a philosopher.” He and his students Philolaus, Alcmaeon, in contrast to the representatives of the materialistic Milesian school, considered the first principle of the world not the corporeal-material, but the ideal-incorporeal, therefore their teachings can be considered as a type of objective idealism. The only basis of existence is number, which can be used to express and quantitatively describe anything. Number is something that is always and invariably present in completely different things, and is their single connecting thread. The whole world is the consistent unfolding of an incorporeal entity - a number, and the number itself is the collapsed unity of the universe, therefore the harmony of the cosmos is determined by mathematical laws. But a number is an idea, not a thing. The things and objects we see are not true reality. The real existence can be revealed to us by the mind, not by sensory perceptions. The Pythagoreans believed in immortality and the transmigration of souls.

Heraclitus (c. 544-480 BC) - the founder of objective dialectics, who believes that the fundamental principle of everything that exists is fire. The choice of fire as the fundamental principle is not accidental: the world, or nature, is in continuous change, and of all natural substances, fire is the most capable of change, the most mobile. So Heraclitus comes to the idea of ​​​​the universality of changes in the world, about the struggle of opposites as the source of all things, about the hidden harmony of the world as the internal identity of opposites, therefore he argued: “everything flows, everything changes.” Nothing is stable, everything moves and changes and never stops at anything. The world is a process where everything turns into its opposite: cold becomes warm, warm becomes cold, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet. A world in which there is nothing stable and permanent is chaotic. Chaos (disorder) of the world is the main principle or law (logos). But law is something stable and orderly. It turns out a paradox: the highest order of the world lies in general disorder, or chaos. Two opposite principles - chaos and logos - turn out to be closely related to each other and are equal (identical). Thus, all things are made up of opposites that fight each other. The struggle of opposite principles is the source of eternal movement and change. If there were no opposites, then there would be nothing to change for any thing. But opposites not only exist in struggle, but also form unity. This important pattern of the universe is the main principle of dialectics - the doctrine of universal connection and eternal change of things. The dialectic of Heraclitus is not a dialectic of ideas (that is, not a subjective dialectic), but a dialectic of the Cosmos, which is presented as unified in its inconsistency. Heraclitus places the material principle – fire – at the basis of everything that exists. “Fire lives the earth by the death, and the air lives by the death of fire; water lives on air by death, earth by water (by death).” This process is cyclical. Heraclitus can be considered the founder of the doctrine of knowledge. He writes: “Man has two means of knowing the truth: sensory perception and logos.” However, the mind comprehends the truth, for it cognizes the essence - the logos of the world. Wisdom is “the knowledge of thought, which rules everywhere and everything.” And although “much knowledge does not teach intelligence...”, however, “men-philosophers should know a lot.” The soul is equated by Heraclitus to fiery breath - the basis of life. A person “inhales” the mind, joining with its help to the logos - the object of truth. The highest goal of knowledge is the knowledge of the Logos, and thereby the knowledge of the highest unity of the universe and the achievement of the highest wisdom. People are equal by nature, but they are not equal in fact. Their inequality is a consequence of the inequality of their interests. Happiness does not lie in pleasing the body, but in thinking and being able to act according to nature.

The opposite of the teachings of Heraclitus is Eleatic school. Its representatives - Xenophanes (580-490 BC), Parmenides (540-480 BC), Zeno of Elea (490-430 BC) believe that existence is one , indivisible, motionless; there is no development. This thesis was substantiated using specific reasoning. Instead of the term “One,” which denotes everything that exists, Xenophanes used the concept of “being.” Eternity follows from the very concept of being and is its most essential feature. That which is eternal must necessarily be indivisible. But something absolutely integral cannot move, which means that being is unchangeable. This is the picture of existence that the mind painted for us, while feeling paints a different picture. Thus, the sensory and rational pictures of the world do not coincide. This means that movement and change do not exist. Because they are impossible to think. To prove this position, Zeno developed aporia (paradoxes or insoluble contradictions: “Dichotomy”, “Achilles and the Tortoise”, etc.). With their help, he tried to prove that the movement we observe does not actually exist, because when we begin to think about it, we encounter insurmountable difficulties: the eyes say that movement is possible, but the mind says that it is not possible. And indeed: we see that the Sun moves every day from East to West, but in fact it is motionless in relation to the Earth. Therefore, one should not rush to assert that Zeno is wrong.

Ancient atomism is a holistic teaching that illuminates all the central problems of ancient philosophy. Representatives of this school include thinkers who lived in different historical periods: Leucippus (5th century BC), Democritus (c. 460-370 BC), Epicurus (342-270 BC) .e.).

The Doctrine of Being. The basis of everything that exists is an infinite number of atoms moving in the void, which is nothingness. Atoms (indivisible particles) are qualityless, that is, devoid of color, smell, sound, etc. All these qualities arise due to the interaction of atoms with human senses. Atoms vary in size, shape, and position. As a result of their combination, all things are formed. Moving atoms gather into “vortices”, from which countless worlds are formed, in which life can arise naturally (without the intervention of gods). It follows from this that not a single phenomenon is uncaused, since it is caused by the combination of different atoms. Everything in the world has a cause, is subject to necessity, which means there are no random events. (The idea of ​​the absence of chance is characteristic primarily of Democritus, while Epicurus deviated from this thesis). The philosophical principle according to which all phenomena in the world have natural causes is called the principle of determinism. Consciousness, the soul of a person, is also a collection of atoms of a special variety.

Theory of knowledge. Cognition is a material process of interaction between atoms. The basis of cognition is sensations, which are the transfer of their copies from things, penetrating into a person through the external senses. But if sensory perceptions are the basis of knowledge, then reason allows us to reveal the true essence of things.

The doctrine of man. Man is a unity of soul and body. The soul, like the body, consists of special atoms that are distributed everywhere. They enter the body during the breathing process. After the death of a person, both body and soul disintegrate.

Ideas about society. Society arose naturally - people united because together it was easier for them to satisfy their needs (needs). Imitating swallows, they learned to build houses, imitating spiders - weaving, etc.

The doctrine of morality (ethics). The atomistic ethics of pleasure in its developed form was developed by Epicurus. Man strives for pleasure and avoids suffering. Its goal is bliss, that is, health of the body and serenity of the spirit. The path to bliss is pleasure, but only natural and necessary (excessive pleasures only give rise to new suffering). Everything that gives pleasure is good, and everything that leads to suffering is evil. Philosophy, according to Epicurus, helps a person achieve bliss, because the knowledge it gives frees him from fear of the gods and death. The name of Epicurus has become a household name in world culture: a person who devotes a lot of time to receiving pleasure is called an “Epicurean.”

“Anthropological revolution” in ancient philosophy.

The anthropological or humanistic period in the development of ancient philosophy is associated with the activities of the Sophists, Socrates and Socratic schools.

Sophists. In the 5th century BC. In Greece, a democratic form of government was established and people were not appointed to public positions, but were elected by popular vote, in connection with which oratory and education in general became of great importance. It was primarily philosophers who had extensive knowledge. Therefore, people began to turn to them with requests to teach them how to argue and prove, refute and convince. Some philosophers who took money for teaching were called sophists, that is, paid teachers. But gradually, in the context of the polemics between Plato and Aristotle, the term “sophistry” takes on a negative meaning, denoting reasoning that deliberately misleads a person, and a sophist began to be called a thinker who knew how to prove what was beneficial to him, regardless of the truth of what was being proven, then there is a “false sage”. Sophisms are outwardly correct evidence of obviously false propositions (for example, the sophism “Horned” sounds like this: “You have something that you haven’t lost; you haven’t lost your horns, which means you are horned”). The Sophists argued that any view is as true as it is false. This view is called subjectivism. From these reasoning it followed that everything in the world is relative (the position that everything is relativity is called relativism).

The famous Greek philosopher confronts the sophists Socrates Athenian (469-399 BC), who did not leave a written statement of his views. His philosophy is his life. The main idea of ​​Socrates' philosophy is the assertion that philosophy should not be a doctrine of nature, because a person can only know what is in his power. Nature is inaccessible to man. She is not in his power. Therefore, the main task of philosophy is self-knowledge, following the motto: “Man, know yourself.” Having known himself, a person knows the essence of virtue.

Knowledge is the discovery of the general in objects, and the general is the concept of an object. To know, you need to define a concept. He developed a special method, which he called maieutics (midwifery), identifying the process of learning the truth with the birth of a child, arguing that the philosopher assists in the birth of truth. He argued that truth, just like the Sun in the sky, can only be one. It is the same for everyone and exists outside of us, regardless of our desires. We didn’t invent it, and it’s not up to us to cancel it. The truth was before us and will always be. But the only thing we can say is that there is truth. However, it is impossible to assert that it is found and established once and for all. Therefore, Socrates argued: “I know that I know nothing” (but our ignorance of the truth does not mean that it does not exist). Everyone must seek the truth on their own. This search is always filled with doubts, contradictions and long discussions. A person can, if not find the truth, then at least get closer to it. This method is called heuristic (from the Greek “I find”). A philosopher must assist the seeker in his endeavors: without offering ready-made answers, help him navigate his search for truth. But it must be born itself in the soul and mind of the one who seeks it. the process of cognition of truth is etah, and the general is the concept of the subject. must be a doctrine of nature, because man can

However, knowledge and virtue, according to Socrates, are not identical. It follows from this that the cause of moral evil, that is, unvirtuous human behavior, is ignorance. If a person knows what good is, then his actions will be true and good. Virtue is knowledge of good and action according to this knowledge. Therefore, explaining the essence of virtue becomes a source of moral self-improvement. Hence, dialectics as a method is aimed, first of all, at educating the soul, at man’s awareness of the true meaning of his existence

After the death of Socrates, several groups of philosophers formed, citing him as a teacher. Such groups were called " Socratic schools" Of particular importance among them was school of cynics(Antisthenes, Diogenes). The Cynics believed that social institutions, including moral norms, are not natural, but artificial. A person must follow nature - it was she who determined the minimum that he really needs. Everything else (eg wealth, power) does not matter. Therefore, the only true benefit is inner freedom - independence from the norms imposed by society. The condition for achieving inner freedom is virtuous behavior. It is expressed in abstaining from pleasures and developing insensitivity to suffering.

Founder Cyrenaic schools was Aristippus. The principle of pleasure was the basis of their practical philosophy, hence the name of their ethical concept - hedonism (pleasure). At the same time, the sage, striving for pleasure, will dominate the blessings of life, and not be captured by them. He must be completely free from external goods and the worries of the world. But it is impossible to achieve perfect happiness, therefore life has no meaning (thus the development of the pleasure principle leads to its self-denial, that is, to the denial of hedonism).

Antiquity is the largest period in the history of European civilization, stretching over 3.5 thousand years. It is based on the history of the development of two civilizations - Greek and Roman. In other words, antiquity is a Greco-Roman culture, but the roots of these two cultures lie in even deeper antiquity. The development of Hellenic culture was greatly influenced (or even were immediate predecessors) by the so-called Aegean (Minoan, Cretan) and Mycenaean (Achaean) cultures. As for the Romans, the formation of Roman culture was greatly influenced by Etruscan culture. Within a given era and two cultures, different stages of development are distinguished.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of ancient Greek culture:

1. Aegean or Creto-MycenaeanIII– IIthousand BC e. The name of this period is associated with the geographical location of the two main centers of proto-Greek culture. One of them is centered on the island of Crete, and the other is Mycenae, a powerful city-state on mainland Greece. The culture of Crete (or Minoan culture) was distinguished by a number of characteristic features. First of all, it was a thalassocratic culture (Greek - “dominant at sea”). Thalassocracy was expressed in the fact that the Cretans, having created a magnificent fleet, controlled with its help both the Aegean Sea and the coast of mainland Greece, making periodic raids on coastal settlements and forcing them to pay tribute to Crete (this aggressive policy of Crete was immortalized in the myth of Theseus and Ariadne ). The fleet also enabled Crete to conduct brisk trade with Egypt and the Middle East, which contributed to the enrichment of not only the treasury, but also the culture of Crete with the achievements of the cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia. A kind of “calling card” of Crete were the palaces of its rulers, excavated by archaeologists at the end of the 19th century (Knossos, Phaistos, Agia Triada, etc.). They were complexes located over a large area, extremely intricately interconnected buildings and passages, equipped with a ventilation system, sewage system, special light shafts and walls decorated with paintings. We know little about the religion of Crete, but the numerous figurines of female guardian goddesses found indicate that the cult of fertility occupied a significant place in this religion. In addition, there was a ritual practice on Crete "tauromachy"(“battles with bulls”). Frescoes with images of the tauromachy adorned the walls of Cretan palaces and served as a subject for small sculptures.

Mycenae, as well as other cities of mainland Greece, were inhabited by tribes of the Achaeans - a people with a lower cultural level than the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was still not devoid of its original originality. In Mycenae, as well as in Crete, palaces were built, but these were monumental structures surrounded by thick walls with the so-called “cyclonic masonry” (Greeks of later times believed that the walls of Mycenae, made of huge stone blocks, were built by the Cyclopes), with a main hall for starting a fire - megaron inside. In addition, the graves of the Mycenaean kings were distinguished by their originality, who were buried surrounded by golden utensils and with a golden mask on their face in deep shafts, covered with stone slabs on top. The Mycenaeans also achieved great art in monumental sculpture (“Lion Gate” of Mycenae).

2. Homeric period (XI- VIIIcenturies BC e.). In the cultural history of Ancient Greece, this is a time, on the one hand, of general cultural degradation, and on the other, the formation of a single Greek nation. By the 8th century, which dates back to the writing of Homer’s poems, the preconditions were created for the emergence of a distinctive Greek culture: social division intensified in society, an aristocracy appeared, life in urban centers revived again. During this era, the anthropomorphic Olympic mythology of the Greeks also took shape.

3. Archaic period (VII– VIBC e.) was marked by the cultural rise of Ancient Greece. This is the time when Greek culture began to flourish: fortified slave-owning cities turned into city-states, writing, medicine, and astronomy emerged. Characteristic features of this period are the Greek maritime colonization of the shores of the Black and Mediterranean Seas, the development of international trade and intercultural contacts, the creation of architectural styles, the appearance of sculpture , literature and poetry (Hesiod, Pindar, Archilochus, Anacreon).

4. Classical period (V– three quartersIVBC e) – This is the heyday of Greek culture. During this period, the Greeks, through joint efforts, were able to resist the eastern conquerors - the Persians, which contributed to the greatest spiritual upsurge in all the far from homogeneous Greek city-states. Athens is confidently emerging as the cultural center of Greece in this era. It was the Athenians who carried out the most radical democratic reforms, and it was to Athens that philosophers, rhetoricians, historians, artists and poets flocked from all over Greece, admiring or criticizing the Athenian polity. Under the leadership of the politician and military commander Pericles, at this time a complete reconstruction of the Athenian Acropolis was carried out, its famous temples were created and, above all, the Parthenon, decorated with sculptures by the master Phidias. Along the streets of Athens in the 5th century. The philosophers Socrates and Plato communicate with the demos, and every year in theaters, on a citywide holiday in honor of the god of wine Dionysus, performances are staged, consisting of tragedies (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedies (Aristophanes). By the end of the 5th century. Athens is experiencing a political crisis and, having lost to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, significantly reduces the pace of its cultural development.

Hellenistic period in the history of Greek culture, the cultural era that began in Greece is called after the conquest of all Greek city-states by King Philip of Macedonia and the grandiose campaign of Philip’s son, Alexander the Great, at the head of the combined Greek army to the East. As a result of this campaign, the Greeks subjugated Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Minor and part of Central and Central Asia (Alexander’s troops even entered India, but the death of the young king forced them to retreat). On the territory conquered by Alexander, after his death, a number of states arose, which were headed by his former military leaders - the Diadochi. In the new states, the cultural policy that Alexander initiated during his campaign was carried out: the Greeks became related to the local population, adopted their customs, but they themselves influenced those they conquered, actively organizing their life according to the laws of the city. During the Hellenistic era, many architectural masterpieces were created. Thus, in Alexandria (the capital of the Ptolemaic state, founded by Alexander the Great), the Library of Alexandria and the Lighthouse of Alexandria were built, as well as the sculpture of the Colossus of Rhodes, and the famous mausoleum was erected in Halicarnassus (the last three were considered by the ancients to be among the seven “wonders of the world”). Sculpture, literature and philosophy also developed. The strengthening of the monarchy still could not save the Hellenistic states from being conquered by stronger and more powerful neighbors. On the one hand, Parthia, and on the other, Rome gradually absorbed Hellas.

The culture of Ancient Italy and Ancient Rome includes three main stages: 1) Tsarist period (VII– VIBC e.); 2) Republican period (510 - 31 BC); 3) Imperial period (31 BC – 476 AD)

The founding date of Rome and the beginning of the royal period is considered to be 753 BC. e. According to legend, the city on Palatine Hill was founded by the brothers Romulus and Remus, descendants of the hero Aeneas, who once arrived in Italy after the destruction of Troy. Due to a dispute over the name of the city, Romulus killed Remus, and Rome received its historical name "Roma".

During the Age of Kings, the city expanded, conquering surrounding territories. Thanks to their proximity to the highly developed culture of the Etruscans and Greek colonies, the Romans very rapidly developed their culture. They adopted the “Latin alphabet”, the secret sciences of the priests, the basics of urban planning and metallurgy from the Etruscans, and the polis form of urban structure from the Greeks.

From the very beginning, the Republican period was marked by the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians for civil and property rights. This struggle ended after the establishment of uniform norms for all Roman citizens (“Laws of the XII Tables”).

In the IV–III centuries. BC e. Rome managed to subjugate the entire Apennine Peninsula, conquering Carthage, Greece and the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Having mastered vast territories, the Romans created a powerful military-administrative state and introduced firm order into their life.

The culture of the Republic era was less vibrant than the culture of the Greek city-states during the heyday of democracy. The Romans continued to be strongly influenced by the Greeks, from whom Rome studied architectural and fine arts, poetry, drama, and philosophy. The first Roman writers were Naevius of Campania and Titus Maccius Plautus (comedian). Gladiator fights, which gathered many thousands of residents in huge amphitheaters, became a unique phenomenon of Roman republican life.

The growth of wealth of the nobility (nobles) and the poverty of the plebs led to a series of civil wars and slave uprisings in the 2nd–1st centuries. BC e. As a result of severe civil wars, Rome came to the need to centralize power over the metropolis and provinces in the hands of one person. But the first attempt at such centralization, made by Julius Caesar, ended with his assassination by supporters of the Republic in 44 BC. e., however, 17 years after this, the Roman Republic finally became a thing of the past - the time of the empire had come.

The imperial period in the cultural history of Ancient Rome lasted five centuries, from 27 BC. e. to 476 AD e., beginning with the brilliant era of the reign of the first principle, Octavian Augustus, who managed to stabilize the life of Rome and the provinces. Augustus turned Rome into the capital of a world empire.

The period of the early empire was a time of tremendous cultural upsurge. New temples and baths are being built, a forum is being defended, a giant Colosseum amphitheater is being created, a system of aqueducts supplying cities with clean water. Alexandria, with its famous library, becomes the intellectual center of the empire. In the first two imperial centuries, sciences successfully developed - medicine (Galen), natural science (Pliny the Elder), astronomy (Ptolemy), geography (Strabo).

In the religion of this time, two new phenomena are making themselves known: firstly. a cult of deification of the emperor arises; secondly, starting from the middle of the 1st century. n. e. Throughout the empire, Christianity begins to gradually spread, a religion that originated in provincial Judea, but is cosmopolitan in nature.

Stages of development and main features of ancient philosophy.

Topic 3. “Ancient Greek civilization and features of ancient philosophical traditions.”

Questionnaire:

1. Basic ideological ideas of ancient philosophy.

Stages of development and main features of ancient philosophy.

Despite the presence of various special knowledge in Hellas in pre-philosophical times, ancient Greek science emerged simultaneously with philosophy. However, the ancient tradition is unanimous that the first ancient philosophers underwent preliminary training in Egypt and partly in Babylonia, where they learned the achievements of Middle Eastern protoscience. According to a well-known myth, Europa herself is a Phoenician kidnapped by Zeus. Europe's brother Cadmus, finding himself in Greece in search of his sister, not only founded Thebes, but also brought the Phoenician alphabet to the Greeks.

Already the first ancient philosophers began to process Afro-Asian computational mathematics into deductive science. On this basis, it became possible for the emergence of ancient philosophy as a rationalized worldview seeking the substantial basis of the universe. Philosophy in Hellas originates as spontaneous materialism, as natural philosophy or physical philosophy on the basis of its own ideological and Middle Eastern scientific pre-philosophy in the conditions of an anti-aristocratic social revolution.

Ancient Western, ancient, first only Greek and then Roman philosophy existed for more than a millennium (from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD). During this time, it went through, like all ancient culture, a closed cycle from origin to prosperity, and through it to decline and death. In accordance with this, the history of ancient philosophy falls into four periods: 1) origin and formation (6th century BC); 2) maturity and flourishing (5th - 4th centuries BC), 3) decline - this is Greek philosophy of the Hellenistic era and Latin philosophy of the Roman Republic period (3rd - 1st centuries BC) and 4) period of decline and death during the era of the Roman Empire (1st - 5th centuries AD).

Despite the diversity of philosophical schools and traditions, some unifying features can be identified for this period. Ancient philosophy is syncretic, which means that it is characterized by greater unity and indivisibility of problems than subsequent philosophy. In modern philosophy, a detailed division of the world is carried out, for example, into the natural world and the human world. Each of these worlds has its own divisions. A modern philosopher is unlikely to call nature good; for him, only man can be good. The ancient philosopher, as a rule, extended ethical categories to the entire cosmos. Ancient philosophy is cosmocentric: its horizons always cover the entire Cosmos, including the human world. Such universal coverage is not always characteristic of modern philosophy. Ancient philosophy achieved a lot at the conceptual level - Plato's concept of ideas, Aristotle's concept of form, the Stoics' concept of meaning. However, she knows almost nothing about the laws of science.

The ethical teaching of antiquity is primarily an ethics of virtues, and not an ethics of duty or values. Ancient philosophy is truly functional, meaning that it is designed to help people in their lives.

Ancient pre-philosophical mythology existed in three varieties: Homeric, Hesiodian and Orphic. This period is characterized by a mythological approach to the world order and understanding of the world; the Orphics are dominated by a mystical approach to understanding the world.

The next stage in the development of ancient philosophy is Ionian philosophy. If we accept that ancient philosophy is the fruit of the ancient Greek mythological worldview and Middle Eastern scientific pre-philosophy, then the fact of the birth of philosophy in Ionia is not surprising. Ionia is the advanced part of the Aegean world. It was located on the western coast of the Asia Minor peninsula and consisted of twelve independent cities (Miletus, Ephesus, etc.) Ionia is the birthplace of epic poetry and lyric poetry. The Ionians were the first logographers, i.e., “writing words” (meaning prose) and the first historians. Among them are Cadmus of Miletus, the author of the book “The Foundation of Miletus,” the geographer Hecataeus of Miletus with his “Description of the Earth,” and the historian Herodotus.

Ionian philosophy was represented mainly by the Milesian school and the lone philosopher Heraclitus. Ionian philosophy as a whole is spontaneously materialistic and naively dialectical, which does not exclude the presence of elements of idealism in it. Ionian philosophy is proto-philosophy. It is also characterized by the absence of polarization into materialism and idealism, which explains the spontaneity of its materialism and its compatibility with the rudiments of idealism, the presence of many images of mythology, significant elements of anthropomorphism, pantheism, the absence of proper philosophical terminology and the associated allegory, the presentation of physical processes in the context moral issues, which indicates that ancient philosophy, to a certain extent, was born as ethics.

Representatives of the Milesian school were natural scientists Thales (640-546), Anaximander (610-547), Anaximenes(575-528), who were also interested in deeply ideological issues. They were puzzled by the search for a single foundation and beginning of existence: “What is everything made of?” Thales saw it in the water, Anaximander - in the apeiron, Anaximenes - in the air.

So the Milesian sages, still burdened with mythological views, tried to go beyond immediate visibility and give a natural explanation of the world. This line of Greek philosophy continues Heraclitus from Ephesus (540-480 BC). He also tries to isolate the basis of existence behind the multitude of phenomena, constantly changing and disappearing, and considers fire to be such - material and the most changing of the natural elements.

Heraclitus is also interested in another problem - the state of the world: how does it exist? “Everything that exists,” the philosopher answers, “flows (moves), and nothing remains in place.” To describe the eternal variability and dynamism of the world, Heraclitus uses the images of “fire,” which gives an idea of ​​the rhythmic nature of the world process, and the river, an indomitable stream that “cannot be entered twice.” Going further in his reasoning, he raises the question of the reason for the change and calls it the struggle of opposing forces: cold and hot, wet and dry, etc.

At the end of the 6th century. BC e. the center of the emerging European philosophy moves from the Far East of the Aegean world to its Far West - from Ionia to “Magna Graecia” (as the Romans called this part of the Greek world), or “Great Hellas” (as the Hellenes themselves called it). Italian philosophy (Aristotle) ​​was a further step in the formation of ancient philosophy after Ionian philosophy. The Pythagorean League, the Eleatic school and Empedocles belonged to Italian philosophy.

Pythagoras(570-497 BC) creates his own school and substantiates a mathematical approach to the knowledge of reality, the explanation of which comes not from nature, but from number - the mathematical principle. He views the cosmos as an ordered harmonious whole, expressed in numbers. “Number owns things,” “number is the basis of existence,” “the best numerical relationship is harmony and order”—these are the main judgments of Pythagoras and his students, who expounded the doctrine of the numerical structure of the universe. Since the Pythagoreans, philosophy, by the power of reason, transforms myth into theoretical constructions, and transforms images into concepts. There is an emerging trend towards the liberation of philosophy from mythology and the formation of a rational-conceptual worldview.

The Eleatic school, whose representatives were Xenophanes(570-548 BC), Parmenides(520-440 BC), Zeno(490-430 BC). Like their predecessors, the subject of discussion was the problem of the essence of the world and the ways of its existence. The power of reason, according to Parmenides, was that with its help one can move from an infinite number of facts to some internal basis, from variability to stability, subject to certain rules, for example, the law prohibiting contradictions. Only on this path can one identify the basis of the world, abstracting from its diversity, highlight what is common to it and all things, and see the unchangeable behind the changing world. Parmenides believes that this is what being is. Following the law of contradiction, he concludes: “There is existence, but there is no non-existence at all.” Being is endowed with such qualities as: indivisibility, immobility, perfection, timelessness, eternity.

The merit of Parmenides and the Eleatic school is enormous. The concept of being as a fundamental philosophical category was highlighted and thus laid the foundation for the most important branch of philosophy - ontologies. The problem of constant and changing in the world was also identified and preference was given to sustainable relationships.

The pinnacle of philosophical thought of the pre-Socratic period was the idea of ​​ancient atomism, which received elaboration in philosophy Democritus(460-370 BC). In his reasoning, he tries to resolve the contradiction that the Eleatic school came to - the contradiction between the sensory-perceptible picture of the world and its speculative comprehension.

Unlike Parmenides, Democritus allows for non-existence, which “exists no less than being.” By it he means emptiness. At the same time, being is conceived as a collection of tiny particles that interact with each other, enter into various relationships, and move in the void. The single motionless being of the Eleatics is thus opposed to the doctrine of two states of the world: atoms and emptiness, being and non-being, and being turns out to be divisible. Atoms are tiny, indivisible, unchangeable and impenetrable, absolutely dense, infinite in number of first bodies, which, differing from each other in size, shape and position, colliding and intertwining, form bodies.

Classical period- the heyday of ancient Greek society and its culture with polis democracy, which opened up great opportunities for personal improvement, giving the free Greek the right to participate in the management of public affairs, and therefore, making independent decisions and at the same time demanding responsibility and wisdom. Man recognized himself as a sovereign person. The problem of man, his cognitive and activity capabilities and place in society became acute.

Philosophy recognizes the need to understand these problems. And the first to emerge were the sophists—the ancient enlighteners and teachers of wisdom. In the person of the sophists, the philosophical worldview thought of Ancient Greece placed man at the focus of ideological research. The Sophists extended their relativism to religious dogmas. In general, relativism has one positive feature - it is anti-dogmatic. In this sense, the sophists played a particularly important role in Hellas. Where they appeared, the dogmatism of tradition was shaken. Regarding the historical sequence, we can talk about “senior” and “younger” sophists. Among the senior sophists stood out Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Antiphon, Xeniades. Of the younger sophists, active already at the end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th century. BC e., the most interesting Alcidamas, Thrasymachus, Critias and Callicles.

The further development of ancient philosophy is associated with the names of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle - the titans of ancient philosophy.

In general, this period of ancient philosophy was characterized by a cosmocentric direction of philosophical thought, a spontaneous-materialistic approach to ontological teachings. The moral and epistemological relativism of the sophists, which had a general anti-dogmatic orientation, is of great importance.

2. Philosophy of pre-Sacratics, Sophists, Socrates.

2.Pre-Socratics– philosophers of the ancient period before Socrates (800 – 500 BC).
Presocratics (German Vorsokratiker; French Presocratiques, English Presocratics) is a new European term to refer to the early Greek philosophers of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e The works of the Pre-Socratics are known only from fragments preserved in the form of quotations from later ancient authors (see doxographies). The main philosophical centers of early Greek philosophy were Miletus (in Ionia, the western coast of Asia Minor), Sicily, Elea. The most prominent pre-Socratic philosophers: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes (Miletus school), Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, Parmenides and his followers (Eleatic school), Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus. The focus of the entire philosophy of the Pre-Socratics is the cosmos, its elementary principles, the causes of various natural phenomena, therefore this philosophy is also called cosmological and natural philosophy. In general, the eastern, Ionian tradition (Miletus school) is characterized by empiricism, interest in the diversity of the material and material, while the western (Italian) tradition (Pythagoreanism, the Eleatic school, partly Heraclitus) is characterized by a predominant interest in the formal, numerical and structural aspect of things, the first formulation of epistemological and ontological problems in their pure form, often religious and eschatological interests. The sum and result of the development of all early philosophy was the atomistic system of Democritus. In the early period, Greek philosophy formulated two universal theses that allow us to speak of it as an independent school of thought: “out of nothing nothing comes” and “like is known by like,” which were one way or another present in all the constructions of the Pre-Socratics.
The anthropological problems of the early tradition are included in the cosmological one: at first it does not go beyond the framework of narrow physiology and considers man as a material, albeit an animate element of the cosmos, then, in atomistic philosophy, it acquires the features of rationalistic ethics, justifying the rules of behavior in society in connection with the idea of ​​the universal good (happiness).
First time term "pre-Socratics" was introduced in 1903, when the German philologist Hermann Diels (1848-1922) collected in his book Fragments of the Presocratics ("Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker") texts" of philosophers who lived before Socrates. The book included more than 400 names along with fragments of Orphic and other pre-philosophical theocosmogonies.
Ancient philosophy (first Greek and then Roman) covers more than a thousand-year period from the 6th century. BC There is. to the 6th century n. is, it originated in the ancient Greek city-states (city-states) of democratic orientation and in content, methods and purpose differed from the Eastern methods of philosophizing, the mythological explanation of the world inherent in early ancient culture. The formation of a philosophical view of the world was prepared by ancient Greek literature and culture (the works of Homer, Hesiod, gnomic poets), where questions were raised about the place and role of man in the universe, the skills of establishing motives (reasons) for actions were formed, and artistic images were structured according to a sense of harmony, proportions and measures. Early Greek philosophy uses fantastic imagery and the metaphorical language of mythology. But if for myth the image of the world and the real world are separable, no different and, accordingly, comparable, then philosophy formulates as its main goal: the desire for truth, a pure and disinterested desire to get closer to it. Possession of complete and definite truth, according to ancient tradition, was considered possible only for the gods. Man could not merge with “Sophia”, since the mortal, finite, is limited in knowledge. Therefore, a person has only a steady pursuit of truth, never fully completed, an active, active, passionate desire for truth, a love for wisdom, which follows from the very concept of philosophy. The main stages of development for the ancient Greeks who lived during the period of ancient philosophy were the renewal of civilization, the world is a huge collection of various natural and social forces and processes. How to live in such a world? Who rules the world? How to reconcile your own capabilities with the secret and powerful forces of nature? What is being and what are its foundations, beginning? Being was associated with a multitude of changing elements, and consciousness was associated with a limited number of concepts that restrained the chaotic manifestation of the elements. The search for a stable beginning in the changing cycle of phenomena of the vast Cosmos is the main cognitive goal of ancient Greek philosophy. Therefore, ancient philosophy can be understood as the doctrine of “First Principles and Causes.” According to its method, this historical type of philosophy seeks to rationally explain existence, reality as a whole. For ancient philosophy, reasonable arguments, logical argumentation, rhetorical-deductive rationality, and logos are significant.

The transition “from myth to logos” created a well-known vector for the development of both the spiritual culture and civilization of Europe.

There are four main stages in the development of ancient philosophy :
First stage– covers the 7th-5th centuries. BC There is. and is called pre-Socratic. The philosophers who lived before Socrates are called pre-Socratics. These include the sages from Miletus (the so-called Milesian school - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Heraclitus from Ephesus, the Eleatics (Parmenides, Zeno), Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, ato-containers (Leucippus and Democritus). At the center of the early – Pre-Socratic Greek natural philosophy – were the problems of physics and the Cosmos.
Second phase- approximately from the middle of the 5th century. BC There is. - Until the end of the 4th century. BC There is. – Classic. The Sophists and Socrates, who first tried to define the essence of man, carried out an anthropological turn in philosophy. The philosophical heritage of Plato and Aristotle, characterized by the discovery of the supersensible and the organic formulation of the main - classical problems, most fully generalizes and reflects the achievements of the classical era of Greek antiquity.
Third stage in the development of ancient philosophy - the end of the 4th-2nd centuries. BC There is. – Usually called Hellenistic. In contrast to the previous one, associated with the emergence of significant, deep in content and universal in theme, philosophical systems, various eclectic competing philosophical schools are being formed: peripatetics, academic philosophy (Plato’s Academy), Stoic and Epicurean schools, skepticism. All schools are united by one feature: the transition from commenting on the teachings of Plato and Aristotle to the formation of problems of ethics, moralizing frankness in the era of decline and decline of Hellenistic culture. Then the popular works of Theophrastus, Carneades, Epicurus, Pyrrho and others.

Fourth stage in the development of ancient philosophy (I century BC - V-VI centuries AD) - the period when Rome began to play a decisive role in antiquity, under whose influence Greece fell. Roman philosophy was formed under the influence of Greek, especially Hellenistic. There are three schools of thought in Roman philosophy: Stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius), skepticism (Sextus Empiricus), Epicureanism (Titus Lucretius Carus). In the III-V centuries. n. There is. In Roman philosophy, Neoplatonism arises and develops, the outstanding representative of which is the philosopher Plotinus. Neoplatonism significantly influenced not only early Christian philosophy, but also all medieval religious philosophy.
The main subject of philosophizing among the Pre-Socratics was space. It seemed to them to be composed of ordinary sensory elements: earth, water, air, fire and ether, mutually transforming into each other as a result of condensation and rarefaction. Man and the social sphere, as a rule, were not distinguished by the Pre-Socratics from general cosmic life. The individual, society, and cosmos in the pre-Socratics were subject to the same laws.

The main features of ancient philosophy are cosmologism, objectivism, and syncretism.

In the development of philosophy of Ancient Greece, three stages are traditionally distinguished:

• -natural philosophy;
• -classic;
• - Hellenistic era.

The first stage of ancient philosophy represents the natural philosophy of the early Greek philosophers (VI-V centuries BC). The main problem for philosophers of this period was the problem of the first principle (arche). They tried to answer the question: what is the root cause of everything that exists?

Main features of this period:

• - Cosmologism: the focus of the philosophers of this period was the ancient cosmos, its origin and structure. The cosmos is considered as a large but finite material body, built according to the laws of mathematical proportion, similar to the proportions of a perfect structure. This is the ideal of harmony that a person should strive for in his life. Space is a role model in all areas of life.
• - Objectivism - all reality, including human ideas, is understood extremely objectively. Even the mind and soul of man are seen as a pathetic imitation of the objective mind and soul of the cosmos. Human life is subject to the same natural laws as the life of the cosmos.
• - Syncretism: the non-separation of man from nature and society. The man of antiquity did not perceive himself as a self-sufficient person opposed to nature, clan, or polis. There is not even a term for “person” in ancient Greek.

The main schools and representatives of this period are the Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus), the Pythagorean Union (Pythagoras), the Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno), the school of atomism (Leucippus, Democritus).

The second period of the classical stage of development of ancient philosophy dates back to the middle of the 5th century. BC.

Continuing the logic of the development of natural philosophy, which came to recognize the mind as the most important part of the cosmos, the philosophy of this period makes an anthropological turn to man as the bearer of opinion and knowledge. The paradoxes of natural philosophy, expressed in the teachings of Heraclitus and Parmenides, were perceived as proof of the impossibility of knowledge of the cosmos. Therefore, the problems of man and society have become the only sphere of philosophical reflection.

The second period of development is the classics (mid-5th - mid-4th centuries BC). During this period, an “anthropological turn” occurs: the central theme of philosophy becomes man himself, and with him the problems of knowledge, ethics, and social philosophy. Plato and Aristotle complete the classical period by combining the teachings of natural philosophers about nature with the teachings of Socrates about man and society.

In the middle of the 5th century in Ancient Greece, the polis system reached its peak. In Athens, a democratic form of statehood is established with elements of aristocratic rule, which presupposes the participation of all citizens in governing the state. This requires the ability to speak beautifully and reasonedly, to prove your opinion in the courts and the people's assembly - the highest governing body. That is why rhetoric (the art of eloquence), eristics (the art of argument) and logic (the art of correct thinking) develop during this period. The skills of rhetoric and eristics were taught by the first paid teachers of philosophy, the sophists (from the Greek word “sophistes” - sage, expert). The Sophists were supported by Pericles, the enlightened ruler of Athens, who was elected to the highest government positions for a long time. However, already at the end of the 5th century BC, the word “sophist” acquired a negative meaning.

This was due to the fact that the sophists could equally convincingly prove completely opposite statements. In the face of rapid changes in laws, traditions and customs that previously seemed unshakable, the sophists questioned the objectivity of state laws, religious and moral principles.

The sophists focus on a specific, individual person, with his desires and sensual aspirations. For sophists, a person is a bearer of opinion; he does not possess knowledge of objective truth. The sophists Protagoras and Gorgias believed that objective truth is unknowable. Everything is relative and depends on the individual preferences of the person. The sophists' line of reasoning is as follows: the world is material, but the main property of matter is variability. Everything in the world is constantly changing to the opposite; accordingly, two opposing opinions can be expressed about each subject. From this statement Protagoras concludes: “If two opposing opinions can be expressed about every thing in the world, then whatever we say will be true. From here everything is true.” Another sophist Gorgias drew the opposite conclusion from these premises, that everything is false. In his work “On Nature or the Non-Existent” Gorgias proves the impossibility and pointlessness of attempts to understand nature.

Considering the impossibility of objective general cosmic criteria of good and evil, truth and falsity, Protagoras declares that such a criterion is the representation of man himself: “Man is the measure of all things.” Pointing to the diversity of laws and religious customs of different countries, the Sophists considered law and religion to be baseless, invented by man, and not given by the gods. Therefore, already at the end of the fifth century, the sophists began to be seen as a real threat to the foundations of polis statehood. The activities of the sophists were officially prohibited.

The opposite in spirit philosopher of this era was Socrates. If the Sophists consider man from the sensual side, then for Socrates man, first of all, is the bearer of reason. Reason allows a person to know the difference between good and evil and thereby achieve a happy life. Such knowledge is possible only with the help of general concepts - justice, goodness, courage, which are definitions of God. Socrates' God appears as cosmic reason, goodness and truth. It manifests itself in the mind of every person. A special place in the philosophy of Socrates is occupied by the doctrine of the soul as a non-physical ideal sphere of existence. Caring for the soul, its upbringing and education, becomes the main goal of Socrates' conversations. Socrates was convinced that a person cannot acquire knowledge externally as information. Knowledge can only be the result of one’s own reflections and volitional efforts, as a result of which unshakable moral principles are formed in the soul. This is where the famous saying “Know thyself” comes from.

Socrates' student Plato is the most significant representative not only of ancient philosophy, but of all Western philosophy as a whole. His teaching synthesizes the natural philosophy of the Pre-Socratics with the philosophical anthropology of Socrates. Thus, Plato overcomes the limitations of natural philosophy, in which there was no problem of man, and the limitations of the philosophy of Socrates, in which there was no doctrine of the cosmos. As a result, Plato creates a comprehensive philosophical system that reveals the cosmos as a dialectical unity of the spiritual and physical, as a perfect living organism.

The sensory world is a dialectical unity of opposites - mind and body, idea and matter, limit and infinity, one and many. Being in the middle between being and non-being, ideal and material, the sensory world always strives for the highest and ideal, but it is constantly pulled down by formless matter. Therefore, everything in the cosmos is in the process of birth and dying, transition from being to non-being and from non-being to being. Using mythological images, Plato characterizes the sensible cosmos as a child born from the marriage of a cosmic mind-father, containing all ideas, and a formless mother-matter. Cosmos is a living being that has a mind containing the ideas-patterns of all things, a soul, which is the source of movement, and a mathematically ordered body composed of four elements, in which the mind and soul are located. The unity of all parts of the cosmos is ensured by the One or Good (analogue of the Pythagorean unit), which is higher than the Mind and therefore unknowable.

Analyzing the life of his contemporary polis, Plato speaks of the inevitable degradation of the ideal state, the cause of which is the imperfection of human nature. Incorrect forms of government, which at the same time represent successive stages of the decline of the ideal system, are:

• - timocracy - the power of ambitious people or a military state, where instead of wisdom, courage and bravery are put in first place;
• - oligarchy - the power of a wealthy minority, which is established as a result of the accumulation of wealth by rulers;
• - democracy - the power of the poor majority who overthrew the oligarchs;
• - tyranny - the power of one tyrant who comes to rule the state as a result of democratic elections.

If in a just state everything is controlled by the rational part of the soul, then in tyranny as an absolutely unjust state everything is subordinated to the basest desires of the lustful part of the soul.

Being the largest event of antiquity, Plato's philosophy is the pinnacle of development of the classical period and a model for subsequent stages in the history of philosophy.

The Hellenistic era - the third period of ancient philosophy - is characterized by subjectivism and individualism. At this time, philosophers are concerned with the questions of the individual who seeks protection from the destructive influence of the outside world. The main currents of this period are Stoicism, Epicureanism, skepticism, Neoplatonism.

The increased attention to the singular and individual, which permeates Aristotle's philosophy, indicates the advent of a new era when the sensory and subjective will be the main subject of attention of philosophers. This is the Hellenistic era, which begins at the end of the 4th century BC. The term Hellenism itself means “imitation of the Hellenes” and defines the desire to repeat the concepts of the classical era in new subjective forms.

Main features: the collapse of the polis system and the advent of the era of empires, as a result of which the individual finds himself torn out of the familiar and visible environment of the polis and thrown into the vast expanses of the empire. This change of environment will force a person to withdraw into his own inner world and view external reality as a source of unpredictable and hostile events.

There is a deepening of ideas about personality, the development of individual independence. The new situation also requires this. In the Roman Empire, a professional bureaucracy arises, which requires an independent and developed individual, a professional intelligentsia is formed, representing subjective images of the era in literary works, and individual entrepreneurship expands in the economy. Slaves gain greater independence, from whom initiative and independence are required. Finally, the entire multitude of policies, peoples, and territories of the empire are united under the rule of one person - the monarch. Thus, the individual, subjective principle permeates all spheres of the Hellenistic world.

The three main movements of the early Hellenistic era - Stoicism, Epicureanism and skepticism, despite significant differences, pursue the same goal: to protect a person from the destructive influence of the outside world, bringing him into a state of equanimity that cannot be disturbed by any blows of fate.

Stoicism is the most widespread movement of the Hellenistic era, which arose in Ancient Greece and was popular in Ancient Rome. Founders: Zeno, Chrysippus, Cleanthes. Recognizing that everything in the world happens according to the will of an unknowable fate, the Stoics sought to achieve a state where fate could no longer have any influence on a person. This is a state of apathy or equanimity, the achievement of which requires a person to get rid of all passions and lusts. Emphasizing the rational side of man, the Stoics were convinced of the ability of reason to curb passions and lusts. To describe the picture of the world, the Stoics used the philosophy of Heraclitus, considering the cosmos and everything that exists as a result of the outflow of the divine primordial energy, which is at the same time the Logos. Logos is Fate, natural law, God, cosmos. Being an integral part of the fiery cosmos, man is completely dependent on the actions of the Logos. He can only choose between wisdom and stupidity, that is, between following the rational law of the Logos or following his own unreasonable passions and desires. The Stoic cosmos is a living organism permeated with fiery breath, consisting of a mixture of fire and air and called “pneuma”. A change in this breathing is reflected in all cosmic processes, including human life.

Representatives of Epicureanism, in contrast to Stoicism, emphasized the sensual component of man, believing that the goal of life is a state of pleasure. The founder of this movement, Epicurus of Athens, argued that sciences are useless and do not save people from stupidity. All knowledge arises from sensations, and sensations are followed by pleasure, which is the beginning and the end of a blissful life. The purpose of life is not to suffer in body, not to worry in soul. Pleasure is understood as the absence of suffering, that is, equanimity and serenity. The ideal of the Epicurean sage is gods who are so imperturbable and self-absorbed that they do not interfere either in the life of man or in the life of the cosmos. The Epicurean teaching about nature is based on the atomism of Democritus and is intended to free man from the main source of his anxiety - fear of the gods. Everything that exists is made up of atoms and the void in which they move. Atoms are capable of spontaneously deviating from the path of motion. This ability also exists in a person who performs free actions that are not predetermined by fate. After death, a person simply disintegrates into atoms, so the gods cannot punish him for his misdeeds during life.

Unlike Stoicism and Epicureanism, skepticism (the term itself comes from a Greek verb that means to look around, to look around, to be indecisive) believes that truth is completely unknowable by either reason or the senses. The founder of this movement is Pyrrho, the successors are Timon, Aenesidemus, Carneades, Arcesilaus, the systematizer and the last representative is Sextus Empiricus.

Subsequently, the ideas of ancient philosophy formed the basis of medieval philosophy and are considered the main sources of the development of European social thought.

In ancient philosophy, there are 4 main periods: Natural philosophical (pre-classical) stage (7-5 ​​centuries BC, Classical stage (5-4 centuries BC), Hellenistic-Roman stage (4 centuries BC .C. - 3rd century AD), the final stage (3-6th centuries AD).

Pre-classical ancient philosophy arose in the ancient Greek city-states (polises): Miletus, Ephesus, Elea, etc. It is a collection of philosophical schools named after the corresponding policies. Natural philosophers (translated as philosophers of nature) considered the problems of the universe in the unity of nature, gods and man; Moreover, the nature of the cosmos determined the nature of man. The main question of pre-classical philosophy was the question of the fundamental principle of the world.

Early natural philosophers highlighted the problem of cosmic harmony, which must correspond to the harmony of human life (cosmological approach).

U late natural philosophers the contemplative approach is combined with the use of logical argumentation, and a system of categories emerges.

Natural philosophers include:

School	Main representatives	Key Ideas	What is the fundamental principle of the world
Early natural philosophers
Milesian school	Thales (c. 625-c. 547 BC) - founder of the school	Nature is identified with God	Water
	Anaximander (c. 610-546 BC)	There are countless worlds that come and go	Apeiron – abstract matter in perpetual motion
	Anaximenes (c. 588-c. 525 BC)	Founded the doctrine of the sky and stars (ancient astronomy)	Air
Ephesus school	Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 554-483 BC)	Everything in the world is changeable - “you cannot step into the same river twice”	The First Fire is a symbol of the universal, rational and animate element
Eleatic school (Eleatics)	Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570-after 478 BC)	Human feelings do not provide true knowledge, but only lead to opinions	“One” is an eternal, perfect being, which is God.
	Parmenides (c. 515 BC – ?)	The true truth - "aletheia" - can only be known by reason	Eternal existence without beginning or end
	Zeno of Elea (c. 490-c. 430 BC)	The movement does not exist, because a moving object consists of many points at rest (Achilles and the tortoise)
Later natural philosophers
The teachings of Pythagoras and his followers - the Pythagoreans	Pythagoras (2nd half 6th - early 5th centuries BC)	Harmony, order and measure are the main thing in the life of both a person and society	Number-symbol of world harmony
	Empedocles of Agrigentum (484-424 BC)	The driving forces of the world - the confrontation between Love and Enmity	Four elements: water, air, earth and fire.
Spontaneous materialistic direction	Anaxagoras (500-428 BC)	Nus, Mind (intelligence) - organizes a chaotic mixture of seeds, as a result of which things arise	“Seeds” – an infinite number of tiny particles
Atomistic materialism	Leucippus, Democritus of Abdera (?-ca. 460 century BC)	All bodies are formed as a result of diverse combinations of atoms	Atoms are countless, constantly moving elements.

Classical stage (5th-4th centuries BC)

The heyday of ancient philosophy. At this stage, the center of philosophical thought was Athens, which is why it is also called Athenian. Main features of the classical stage:

• systematized teachings (original philosophical systems) appear;
• switching the attention of philosophers from the “nature of things” to questions of ethics, morality, problems of society and human thinking;

The most famous philosophers of the classical period are the ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, as well as the sophistic philosophers.

Sophists (in translation from Greek - “sages, experts”) - a group of ancient Greek enlighteners from the mid-5th to first half. 4th centuries BC. They can be called professional philosophers, since the sophists taught logic, oratory and other disciplines to those who wanted them for a fee. They attached particular importance to the ability to convince and prove any position (even incorrect ones).

Features of the philosophy of the Sophists:

• a turn from natural philosophical problems to man, society and everyday problems;
• denial of old norms and experiences of the past, critical attitude towards religion;
• recognition of man as the “measure of all things”: free and independent of nature;

The Sophists did not create a single philosophical doctrine, but they aroused interest in critical thinking and human personality.

The senior sophists include (2nd half of the 5th century BC): Gorgias, Protagoras, Hippias, Prodicus, Antiphon, Critias.

The younger sophists include: Lycophron, Alcidamont, Thrasymachus.

Socrates (469-399 BC) - considered the founder of classical philosophy. Like the Sophists, he made man and his inner world the center of his teaching, but he considered their teaching to be sterile and superficial. He questioned the existence of gods and put reason, truth and knowledge at the forefront.

The main ideas of Socrates:

• Self-knowledge is both the search for knowledge and virtue.
• Admitting your ignorance encourages you to expand your knowledge.
• There is a higher Mind, spread throughout the Universe, and the human mind is only an insignificant part of it.

The essence of Socrates' life was his conversations with his students and discussions with his opponents. He believed that the way to comprehend the truth was maieutics (a method he invented, in Greek means midwifery) - the search for truth through dialogue, irony and collective reflection. Socrates is also credited with the invention of the inductive method, leading from the particular to the general.

Since the philosopher preferred to present his teachings orally, its main provisions have come to us in the retellings of Aristophanes, Xenophon and Plato.

Plato (Athenian) real name - Aristocles (427-347 BC). A student and follower of Socrates, he preached the moral meaning of his ideas all his life. He founded his own school, called the Academy, in the suburbs of Athens, and laid the foundation for an idealistic trend in philosophy.

The basis of Plato’s teachings is made up of three concepts: “one” (the basis of all being and reality), mind and soul. The main question of his philosophy is the relationship between being and thinking, material and ideal.

According to Plato's idealistic theory, the world is divided into 2 categories:

• world of becoming- a real, material world in which everything is changeable and imperfect. Material objects are secondary and are only a semblance of their ideal images;
• world of ideas, or “eidos” - sensory images that are primary and comprehended by the mind. Each object, thing or phenomenon carries its own idea. The highest idea is the idea of ​​God, the creator of the world order (demiurge).

As part of his philosophy, Plato also developed the doctrine of virtue and created the theory of the ideal state.

Plato presented his ideas mainly in the genre of letters and dialogues (the main character of which is Socrates). His works include 34 dialogues in total. The most famous of them: “The Republic”, “Sophist”, “Parmenides”, “Theaetetus”.

Plato's ideas had a huge influence both on subsequent philosophical schools of antiquity and on thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern times.

Aristotle (384 – 322 BC). Aristotle was a student of Plato and spent twenty years at his Academy. After the death of Plato, he served as tutor to Alexander the Great for eight years, and in 335-334. BC. founded his own educational institution in the vicinity of Athens, the Lyceum, where he taught together with his followers. He created his own philosophical system based on logic and metaphysics.

Aristotle developed the basic principles of Plato's philosophy, but at the same time criticized many of its aspects. Let’s say he believed that it is not the contemplation of abstract “ideas” that leads to the highest truth, but the observation and study of the real world.

Basic principles of Aristotle's philosophy:

• at the basis of any thing are: matter and form (the material essence and idea of ​​the thing);
• philosophy is the universal science of being, it provides justification for all sciences;
• the basis of science is sensory perception (opinion), but true knowledge can only be achieved with the help of reason;
• the search for the first or final cause is crucial;
• the main reason for life is soul- the essence of being of any thing. There are: lower (vegetative), middle (animal) and higher (reasonable, human) soul, which gives meaning and purpose to human life.

Aristotle rethought and generalized the philosophical knowledge of all previous ancient thinkers. He was the first to systematize the existing sciences, dividing them into three groups: theoretical (physics, mathematics, philosophy), practical (among which one of the main ones was politics) and poetic, regulating the production of various objects). He also developed the theoretical foundations of ethics, aesthetics, social philosophy and the basic structure of philosophical knowledge. Aristotle is the author of the geocentric system in cosmology, which existed until the heliocentric system of Copernicus.

Aristotle's teaching was the highest achievement of ancient philosophy and completed its classical stage.

Hellenistic-Roman stage (4th century BC – 3rd century AD)

This period takes its name from the Greek state of Hellas, but also includes the philosophy of Roman society. At this time, in ancient philosophy there was a refusal to create fundamental philosophical systems and a transition to problems of ethics, meaning and values ​​of human life.

School	Main representatives	Key Ideas
Cynics (cynics)	Antisthenes from Athens (c. 444–368 BC) - founder of the school, student of Socrates; Diogenes of Sinope (c. 400–325 BC).	Giving up wealth, fame, and pleasures is the path to happiness and achieving inner freedom. The ideal of life is asceticism, disregard for social norms and conventions.
Epicureans	Epicurus (341–270 BC) – founder of the school; Lucretius Carus (c. 99 – 55 centuries BC);	The basis of human happiness is the desire for pleasure, serenity and peace of mind (ataraxia). The desire for pleasure is not the subjective will of man, but a property of human nature. Knowledge frees man from fear of nature, gods and death.
Stoics	Early Stoics: Zeno of Kitium (336-264 BC) is the founder of the school. Late Stoics: Epictetus (50-138 BC); Marcus Aurelius.	Happiness is the main goal of human life. Good is everything that is aimed at preserving a human being, evil is everything that is aimed at its destruction. You need to live in accordance with natural nature and your conscience. The desire for one's own preservation is non-harm to another.
Skeptics	Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270 BC); Sextus Empiricus (c. 200-250 BC).	Due to his imperfection, man is unable to know the truth. There is no need to strive to know the truth, you just need to live based on inner peace.
Eclecticism	Philo (150-79 BC); Panetius (c. 185-110 BC); Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC).	A combination of progressive philosophical thoughts and ideas of Greek thinkers of the classical period. The value of reason, morality, a reasonable attitude towards life.

Final stage (3rd-6th centuries AD)

Period from 3rd to 6th centuries AD includes the philosophy of not only the Greek, but also the Roman world. At this stage, there was a crisis in Roman society, which was reflected in social thought. Interest in rational thinking faded, the popularity of various mystical teachings and the influence of Christianity grew.

The most influential teaching of this period was Neoplatonism, the most famous representative of which was Plotinus (205-270 AD).

Representatives of Neoplatonism interpreted Plato's teachings and criticized all subsequent movements. The main ideas of Neoplatonism were:

• Everything lower flows from the Higher. The highest is God, or some kind of philosophical principle. The Supreme cannot be comprehended by reason, only through mystical ecstasy.
• The essence of knowledge is the knowledge of the divine principle, which embodies the authenticity of being.
• Good is spirituality, liberation from the body, asceticism.

Useful sources

1. "Philosophy. Course of lectures” / B.N. Bessonov. – M.-LLC “AST Publishing House”, 2002
2. "Philosophy. Short course" / Moiseeva N.A., Sorokovikova V.I. – St. Petersburg-Petersburg, 2004
3. “Philosophy: a textbook for universities” / V.F. Titov, I.N. Smirnov - M. Higher School, 2003
4. “Philosophy: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions” / Yu.M. Khrustalev - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008.
5. “Philosophy: a textbook for higher educational institutions” / executive editor, Ph.D. V.P. Kokhanovsky - Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 1998

Ancient philosophy: stages of development, representatives and features updated: October 30, 2017 by: Scientific Articles.Ru