Russian graphics. Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letters and sounds. Basic principles of Russian graphics. Russian orthography, its principles. Merged, hyphenated and separate spellings in Russian. Word hyphenation rules. Rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
Russian graphics
Graphics called the set of means used for written fixation of speech. The main means of Russian graphics are letters combined into an alphabet. A letter is a written or printed graphic sign that serves to convey sounds in writing. Graphics determines the ways in which sounds are indicated in writing and the sound meaning of each letter.
In addition to letters, non-alphabetic graphic means are also used: spaces between words, a dash (hyphen), an accent mark, an apostrophe, a paragraph mark, and some others.
Composition of the Russian alphabet
A set of letters arranged in a certain order is called alphabet. The Russian alphabet was formed on the basis of the Old Slavonic alphabet (Cyrillic), introduced by the great Slavic enlighteners monks Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. n. e. There are 33 letters in the modern Russian alphabet. There are consonants, vowels and voiceless letters.
Consonant letters denote consonant sounds in writing; There are 21 consonants in the Russian alphabet (including the letter and, which denotes the sonorous consonant sound [j] "iot").
Vowels are indicated on the letter vowel sounds Vowels in the Russian alphabet 10: a, o, u, uh, i, s, as well as e, yo, yu, i.
The last four of the listed letters are called iotized. They have a double meaning. If an iotated vowel is used at the beginning of a word (spruce, tree, spinning top, apple), or after any vowel (arrived, mine, warm, flock), or after letters b and b (congress, rise, pour, zealous), then it denotes two sounds - the consonant sound "yot" and the vowel sound: If an iotized vowel is used after a consonant, then it denotes only one vowel, and additionally indicates the softness of the preceding consonant: forest[l "es], honey[m "from].
Letters b and b, which do not represent any sounds are called voiceless. They are used as separators to separate an iotated letter from a consonant. In addition, the letter ь is used to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant. (like- mole), as well as in spelling to distinguish types of declension (mouse- 3rd declension, compare: hut- 2nd declension) and some grammatical forms (going- 2nd l. units h. indicative mood; eat- imperative mood).
Letters and sounds
The composition of modern Russian graphics includes an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was the literary language of all Slavic peoples. It is quite natural that the Old Slavonic alphabet could not fully correspond to the then sound system of the Russian language. In particular, in the Old Slavonic alphabet there were letters to designate such sounds that were not in the Russian language, for example: [yus big], [yus small]. So there was a discrepancy between the spoken language and the written language.
Over the thousand-year period of its existence, Russian graphics have undergone only partial improvements, while the sound system of the living Russian language has changed continuously, although not always noticeably. As a result, the relationship between Russian graphics and the sound system of the Russian language has by our time been deprived of full correspondence: not all sounds pronounced in various phonetic positions are indicated in writing by special letters.
sound and letter
Sound- this is the minimum, indivisible unit of the speech flow, perceived by the ear. Letter is a graphic designation of sound in writing, that is, a certain set of lines, a pattern.
The terms "sound" and "letter" must not be confused. The words what and who are distinguished by the sounds [w] and [k], and not by letters. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and read. Other correlations are impossible: a letter cannot be pronounced, sung, spoken, recited, it is impossible to hear it. Letters are neither hard nor soft, neither deaf, nor voiced, neither stressed nor unstressed. All of the above specifications refer to sounds. it sounds are linguistic units, while letters belong to the alphabet and most often have nothing to do with the description of linguistic patterns. It is the quality of the sound that determines the choice of letter, and not vice versa. There are sounds in any language, regardless of whether it has a written language or not.
Unlike other language units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences) the sound itself doesn't matter. At the same time, the existence of sounds is inextricably linked with meaningful units. The function of sounds in the language is aimed at providing the possibility of communication between people and is reduced to the formation and distinction of morphemes and words.
When determining the distinctiveness of sounds, it is important to understand in what positions they occur. The position is called the conditions for the pronunciation of sounds, given by their position in relation to neighboring sounds, to the stressed syllable, to the beginning / end of the word. Words (morphemes) can be distinguished only by those sounds that have the ability to occur in one position. The difference in the pronunciation of such sounds is noticed by native speakers in contrast to other sound features.
The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic and has 33 letters. To designate consonants, 21 letters are used: b, c, d, d, g, z, d, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u. 10 letters serve to denote vowel sounds: a, y, o, s, e, i, u, e, and, e. There are 2 more letters that do not denote sounds: b, b.
There can be a mirror correspondence between the phonetic and graphic appearance of the word: [volume] vol. However, such a correspondence is not necessary: there are three sounds in the word [p'at '], and it is written with four letters - five.
Letters have "ambiguity", which is removed if adjacent letters/spaces are known. So, the letter ё in the word tree means the sound [j] and the sound [o], in the word heifer - a sign of the softness of the consonant [ ’] and the vowel sound [o], and in the word silk - one vowel sound [o].
Basic principles of Russian graphics
Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet, in which for each sound pronounced in the speech stream there is a special letter. There are much fewer letters in the Russian alphabet than there are sounds in live speech. As a result, the letters of the alphabet are multi-valued, they can have several sound meanings.
So, for example, the letter With can denote such sounds: 1) [s] ( court, garden), 2) [s"] ( here, sit down), 3) [h] ( delivery, collection), 4) [h "] ( mowing, deal), 5) [w] ( sew), 6) [g] ( squeeze).
Letter meaning With in each of the six cases is different: in words court and here letter With cannot be replaced by any other letter, such a substitution would lead to a distortion of the word. In this case, the letter With used in its main meaning. In other words, the letter With appears in secondary meanings and allows replacement by certain letters, in which the usual pronunciation of words is preserved (cf .: pass- "give" mowing- "goat", sew- "shish", squeeze- "burn"). In the latter case, the letter With denotes sounds that replace the sound [s] in certain positions, according to the living phonetic laws inherent in the Russian literary language.
Thus, with the ambiguity of letters, Russian graphics distinguish between the main and secondary meanings of letters. Yes, in a word house letter about used in the main sense, but in the word at home- in a secondary sense.
The second feature of Russian graphics is the division of letters according to the number of sounds they designate. In this regard, the letters of the Russian alphabet fall into three groups: 1) letters devoid of sound meaning; 2) letters denoting two sounds; 3) letters denoting one sound.
The first group includes letters b, b, which do not denote any sounds, as well as the so-called "unpronounceable consonants" in such, for example, words: sun, heart etc.
Letters belong to the second group: I , Yu , e , yo .
The third group includes letters denoting one sound, i.e. all letters of the Russian alphabet, except for the letters included in the first and second groups.
The third feature of Russian graphics is the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in it: the first include letters that have one basic meaning; to the second - having two meanings.
So, for example, the letters h and c are among the unambiguous, since the letter h in all positions denotes the same soft sound [h "], and the letter c- solid sound [ts].
Two-digit letters include: 1) all letters denoting consonants, paired in hardness-softness; 2) letters denoting vowel sounds: i, e, e, u.
The ambiguity of the indicated letters of the Russian alphabet is in connection with the specifics of Russian graphics - precisely with its syllabic principle. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics ( this name, despite its rather frequent use, should be recognized as conditional, because when determining the method of designating a sound or the sound meaning of a letter, the nearest environment is taken into account first of all, and not the entire syllable, another name is letter combination ) lies in the fact that in Russian writing, in certain cases, not a letter, but a syllable, acts as a unit of writing. Such a syllable, i.e. the combination of consonant and vowel letters is an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually conditioned. The syllabic principle of graphics is used in the designation of paired consonants in hardness-softness. For example, a letter t used for both hard and soft sound [t] - (cf .: become - tightened).
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Several types of relationship between letter and sound are possible.
1. One letter can represent only one sound. For example, the letter y means only the sound "yot", the letter y - only the sound [y].
2. One letter can denote different sounds speaking in different positions.
For example, the letter o in the word policeman [gr'davo: j] denotes 3 different sounds - unstressed vowels [b], [a] and a stressed vowel; the letter b in the word fish denotes a voiced sound [b], and in the form R. p. pl. hours of fish - a dull sound [n]: [ryp]. The letter e is often used in printed texts not only in its main sound meaning, but also replaces the letter e, i.e., in such use it denotes an impact sound [o] (brought, ice, led), and after a vowel or dividing b and b - combination (reception, rise, curls).
3. One letter can represent a combination of two sounds. For example, iotized letters, as mentioned above, often denote a combination of a consonant sound [j] and a vowel sound: sing [pajy].
4. A letter may not denote a single sound, that is, it may not have a sound meaning. This applies not only to the voiceless letters b and b (entrance, notebook), but also, for example, the so-called unpronounceable consonants: feeling [feelings], heart [s'erts], sun [sonts].
5. The combination of two letters in a word can mean one sound. For example, in the word count, the first two consonant letters denote one long soft consonant sound: [sh`itat`]. The combination of a consonant letter with a soft sign denotes one consonant sound: day [d`en`], mouse [mouse].
6. Different letters can represent the same sound. So, the letters t and d can denote the same sound [t]: that [that], year [goth].
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is that in Russian writing, in certain cases, not a letter, but a syllable, acts as a unit of writing. Such a syllable, that is, a combination of a consonant and a vowel, is an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually conditioned. The syllabic principle of graphics is used in the designation of paired consonants in hardness-softness. In modern Russian, consonant sounds paired in hardness-softness have a phonemic meaning, that is, they serve to distinguish the sound shells of words. However, in the Russian alphabet there are no separate letters to designate consonant sounds paired in terms of softness and hardness, so, for example, the letter t is used for both hard and soft sounds [t] - (cf .: become - tightened).
The absence in the Russian alphabet of individual letters for consonants paired in terms of hardness and softness is compensated by the presence of double vowel styles in our chart. So, the letters i, o, u, e, s indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, paired in hardness-softness, and the letters i, e, u, e, i indicate softness (cf.
: glad - a row, they say - chalk, tuk - bale, sir - ser, was - beat). Thus, the letters denoting consonant sounds paired in hardness-softness are two-valued: without taking into account the subsequent letter, it is impossible to determine whether a consonant sound paired in hardness-softness is hard or soft. Only at the end of a word and before consonants (although not always) the softness of consonants, paired in hardness-softness, is indicated by a special letter b.
The syllable principle also applies to the designation of the consonant sound [j] (yot), and this application is carried out only within words. The consonant sound yot is indicated by a special letter y only when the syllable ends with this sound following the vowel (cf.: sing - sing, lei - pour, spring, blind, etc.). In all other positions, the sound yot together with the next vowel sound is indicated by one letter, namely: i -, e -, e -, u -. This meaning of the letters i, e, e, u takes place: 1) at the beginning of the word (cf. pit, hedgehog, south, spruce); 2) after vowels (mine, mine, I will go, mine); 3) after the separating signs b and b (announce - monkey, volume - let's go down, congress - mouth, conjuncture - blizzard).
However, the syllabic principle is far from consistent in Russian graphics. The main deviation from the syllabic principle is the designation of vowels after consonants, unpaired in hardness-softness. So, after always solid consonants [w], [w], [c], vowels are denoted, contrary to the syllabic principle, by the letters i, e, e, occasionally u, i (cf. fat, breadth, gesture, pole, groove, whisper , brochure, jury, parachute, figure, chain, Kotsyubinsky, Tsyavlovsky, etc.); after always soft [h], [u], contrary to the syllabic principle, the letters a, o, y are written (cf. bowl, clink glasses, miracle, food, Shchors, pike, etc.). These deviations from the syllabic principle in modern Russian graphics have developed historically. In modern Russian, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have soft varieties, and the sounds [h], [u] do not have hard varieties. Therefore, the hardness and softness of these sounds are indicated by the consonants themselves, which are unambiguous and do not require designation by subsequent vowels.
Particular cases of deviations from the syllabic principle: 1) writing foreign (more often French) words with ё instead of ё (cf .: broth - linen, etc.); 2) writing complex abbreviated words with yo, ba, yu and yu (cf. village district, village airfield, Dalugol, construction site); 3) writing at the beginning of foreign words yo instead of ё (cf. hedgehog, ruff - iot, iodine, Yorkshire, New York).
In addition to the indicated inconsistency in the application of the syllabic principle, one can note in Russian graphics the absence of a stressed syllable designation in a word, as well as a special letter for the sound [zh "] (cf. yeast, squeal, drive, etc.).
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More on the topic 22. Principles of sound and letter correlation. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics:
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- Legality: concept, principles, correlation with the rule of law.
Graphics is a part of the science of writing that studies the styles of letters and the relationship between letters and signs.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics:
Solving the problems of the known gap of the alphabet - the lack of special letters for paired soft consonants
The unit of reading and writing is a syllable, more precisely, a combination of sounds following letters. Letter combination.
In a syllabic type of writing, a syllable is denoted by one sign - a syllabogram. With the syllabic principle within the alphabetic-sound type of writing, each character-letter denotes one sound, and the syllable is a combination of letters (with the exception of I).
"Mal" and "crumpled" are distinguished in writing by vowels, as well as by consonants. When reading, the hardness-softness of consonants depends on the subsequent vowel or soft sign, and when writing vice versa, the use of vowels and soft sign depends on the hardness-softness of the consonant. Shown with a back arrow.
Depending on the preceding letter, consonant or vowel (b), it is read with or without iot. The absence of a letter (space) matters - the end of the word before the space is read firmly, after the space there are vowels like i with iot.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is that when reading, in most cases, not only this letter is taken into account, but also those adjacent to it. When writing and reading, the position of the letters in the word and their relation to neighboring letters and space are taken into account.
S.P.R.G. It is used to indicate the softness and hardness of consonants, iota.
At the end of words, softness is indicated by a soft sign, hardness by a space letter.
The softness of consonants before subsequent hard ones and the softness of l before any consonants - a soft sign, hardness - its absence.
The softness and hardness of consonants before vowels are distinguished using letters like I (and I).
Soft sign thus denotes the softness of the preceding consonant, plus a separator.
The sign of hardness is the letter of the space. Separation of words.
The vowels of both rows denote sounds and indicate the hardness-softness of the preceding consonant.
Indication of softness - e, i, u, e, and
Consonants on a syllabic basis mean an incomplete sound, without indicating hardness or softness.
Vowels represent more than 1 sound. Plus hardness or softness.
The soft sign and the space letter show part of the sound.
A letter like i does not denote a combination of a vowel with an iot, but the corresponding vowel and the softness of the preceding consonant.
The remaining vowels are sound and hardness, and I are sounds and softness.
b is not used.
Yot is indicated together with a vowel after vowels and after b, b
Yot not before vowels - Y
Yot at the end of words is a weak version of iot, therefore, it practically does not find application.
And after b denotes a combination of Yot plus And
b - after prefixes and the first parts of compound words, b - in other cases.
Violations of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics:
Yot at the beginning of a word (iodine, yogi)
Instead of ё after a soft sign, it is written o (battalion, broth)
Instead of I, it is written ya (diamond)
Instead of letters like i, combinations with iot are written. (foen, maya)
Restrictions: after the letters h, u you should write vowels like i, and at the end of words a soft sign. After w, w, c - vowels like a and the end without a soft sign. In practice, a soft sign is placed after sh (pass), and sometimes not after sh (cloak). This is because they are unpaired in hardness-softness.
Borrowed words with e (dean, overcoat), exceptions to spelling - mayor, peer.
Spelling. Principles of Russian spelling.
The leading principle of Russian spelling.
Spelling is a system of rules that establishes the same spelling of the same significant units of a language, primarily morphemes and words. Rules are based on graphics. It also includes rules for marking the boundaries between linguistic units in writing, about continuous and separate writing and writing with a hyphen. Rules for the use of capital letters, written abbreviations, technical rules for hyphenation.
phonetic principle. "Pocket", "here". It is more used in the Belarusian language when choosing vowels and in Serbian when choosing consonants. Directly verifiable.
Morphematic. The desire to emphasize the unity of the morpheme. Non-reflection of living alternations of phonemes. "water" - "water" - through O. Etymological. Indirectly verified.
Historical - shi, zhi are written with beech and. Traditional. "O" in "peas", "milk". Unchecked principle.
The grammatical principle (symbolic-morphological) is the desire to designate a gramme with one written sign. The desire to extend the written sign to those forms, the real sound of which does not give grounds for this. Soft sign at the end of "night", daughter", "rye" and "cut" and "cry". Indirectly verifiable.
Differential - almost not preserved in the Russian language, different spellings mirъ and mirъ. symbolic or hieroglyphic. Unchecked principle.
The leading one is the morphematic principle. In second place are phonetic (when writing prefixes ending in z and s) and grammatical.
Moiseev A. I. Russian language: Phonetics. Morphology. Spelling. A guide for teachers. 2nd ed. Revised Moscow: Education, 1980. 255 p.
CHAPTER 2. GRAPHICS AS A FACTOR OF WRITING.
MODERN RUSSIAN GRAPHICS
The main task of graphics
The main task of graphics as a writing factor is replenishment one of the gaps in the modern Russian alphabet - lack of special letters for paired soft consonants. Graphics also establishes the general conditions for the use of all letters of the alphabet when denoting sounds of functionally strong positions.
A common feature of graphic rules is their independence from specific words or parts of words, their suitability for all words. The rules of graphics are therefore the original and basic rules of writing, and the sound values of letters, established by graphics, as well as alphabetic ones, are their basic values.
The syllabic principle of graphics
Its main task - filling in the known gap of the alphabet - graphics solves with the help of the so-called syllabic principle . The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is that what the unit of writing and reading is a syllable, or rather a combination of sounds and, accordingly, letters. With this in mind, the principle itself should be called not syllabic, but letter-combining.
The essence of the syllabic principle of graphics can be explained by the following examples. In words small and crumpled letter m is read differently: in the first word it is hard, in the second it is soft, and this depends on the letters immediately following it - and in the first word, I in the second. Thus, consonant letters in words can only be read taking into account the letters immediately following them, in this case, taking into account the following vowels. And this means that the unit of reading (only reading was considered so far) is not a single letter, but a combination of letters, conditionally - a syllable. The same thing, but as if in an inverted form, is also manifested when writing words: knowing, for example, what is in the word five consonants are soft, we, using the corresponding consonants, which by themselves cannot designate soft consonants, use the letters i and b, which indicate the softness of these consonants, and the letter i at the same time denotes the corresponding vowel sound.
Consider the action of the syllabic principle using the example of reading vowels: in the word tulle, in words winter storm and sing letter Yu it is read differently - without iot and with iot: [t'ul '] - [v'yuga], [payut], and it depends on which letter precedes it; after consonants Yu and letters similar to it are read without iota, and after vowels and dividing marks - with iot in relation to vowels and consonants, the absence of letters also matters - space consonants: before the space, i.e. at the end of words, they are read firmly: house, and vowels like I after a space, i.e. at the beginning of words, are read with iot: pit- [yama]. This is a significant absence of letters, as if a special letter - "the letter of the gap."
All this can be shown schematically for clarity:
path– P reads firmly, as further y, t- gently, as further b, in general - [put '];
crumpled– m reads softly, as further i, l- firmly, since further is a gap, I- without an iota, since there is a consonant in front, in general - [m'al];
spruce–e read with iot, since after a space, l- gently, as further b, in general - [yel'].
Thus, when reading, in most cases, not only the given letter is taken into account, but also the letters adjacent to it, preceding or following. Therefore, the principle itself can be characterized as a positional principle of writing and reading: when writing and reading, the position of letters in a word is taken into account.
The positional principle of graphics is applied in two main cases:
1) when denoting the softness and hardness of consonants;
2) with the designation iota. The examples given illustrate both of these cases.
§ 3. Violations and limitations of the syllabic principle of graphics
The rules of the syllabic principle are not always applied: there are cases of deviation from them - these are violations of the syllabic principle; there are also limits to its scope.
1. Violations syllabic principle are created by orthography and are observed in the sphere of designation iota. Yot before vowels is denoted together with these vowels like I, and in all other positions - by the letter and: tree, mine, volume, underwear, but edge, nut. But there are spellings legalized by spelling in which these rules are violated: instead of letters like I other letters or combinations of letters are actually written. This is observed in borrowed words and in proper names, also mostly foreign:
1) instead yo, relying on the syllabic principle, the letter combination is actually written yo: iodine(at the beginning of words) majolica, mayonnaise, major, district(after vowels); Joseph, New York(in proper names), etc.;
2) instead yo after b actually spelled about: battalion, broth, lotion, medallion, pavilion, postman, champignon, guillotine, pocket; signor, signora, signorina, as well as señor, señora, señorina(borrowings from Italian and Spanish), etc., in particular the names of large numbers: quadrillion, quintillion, rare, obsolete words: bruillon, canyon, cotillon, minion, modillon, chignon and etc.;
3) instead of letters like I combinations of these letters with the previous one are written th(letter e not shown here): Yemeni, fireworks, foyer; ya– Maya, Goya etc.
Spellings containing violations of the syllabic principle are established by spelling in dictionary order.
2. Retreats from the rules of the syllabic principle, graphics that determine the ratio of adjacent letters in a word are observed in the area of the use of vowels, a soft sign and a “space letter” after hissing and c.
Sounds h and w- soft and w, w, c- hard, therefore, it would seem, according to the prescriptions of the syllabic principle, after the letters denoting these sounds, vowels, as well as signs of softness and hardness, should have been differentiated: after h, w should write vowels like I, and at the end of words - b; after w, w, c- vowel type a, and leave the end of words without a soft sign. In fact, after all these letters - and after h, w, and after w, w, c- then vowels are written like a(a, uh, oh space, and after c also s), then vowels like I (e, i, sometimes Yu, and after hissing, but not after c, more yo and b); only a letter is missing e. For example: h: hour,miracle,shoulder and bang,honour, rank,doctor and night;u: mercy, pike,raincoat and brush,crushed stone,cloak and help;and:heat,beetle and jury,arson(n.) and set fire to(Ch.), gesture, live,hedgehog,rye;w:step,noise,brochure,Good and walked,pole,awl,hut and wilderness;c:heron,train,letter,goal,Gypsy and the circus,cucumbers. We now select only the necessary letter combinations and show their relationship to the syllabic principle by highlighting: fatty font - compliance with the principle, italics – discrepancy to him.
Syllable. Dividing a word into syllables. Connection of syllable division with the rules of transfer of Russian spelling.
Intonation
Stress as a sign of a phonetic word. Stress is verbal, logical (clock, phrasal) and emotive.
Supersegmental units of phonetics. The division of speech into measures and phrases.
Speech is divided into units - sound, syllable, word, beat and phrase. Measures and phrases are called supersegmental units of phonetics. The division of the text into measures and phrases is done with the help of intonation. A phrase is a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a common intonation and separated from other words by a pause. Phrases are made up of measures. Tact is a few words that together have an independent meaning. Speech measures are divided into phonetic words.
Word stress is the selection of one of the syllables of a two-syllable or polysyllabic word during pronunciation. It is one of the main external signs of the word itself. Service words and parts of speech usually do not have their own stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them. There are also two stresses in a word (main and auxiliary): postscript, postfactum, transatlantic.
Bar and phrase stress is needed to highlight one of the words in a bar or phrase. It affects the meaning of the sentence.
Emotive stress serves the same purpose - to change the meaning of the statement, focusing on one of its members.
Intonation distinguishes sentences with the same word composition and the same place of phrasal stress: snow goes? or snow goes ? Intonation is the most important phonetic means of the Russian language, it can change the meaning of speech.
A syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory push. A syllable is made up of sounds. He himself is a unit of phonetics from which words are built.
The basic law of the SL syllable division is as follows: syllables are built from the least sonorous sound to the most sonorous. Particular patterns: between two vowels you cannot pronounce more than two consonants, you cannot pronounce two identical consonants before the third (other) within one syllable.
The transfer rules when writing obey the rules of the syllable section: o-des-sit, ras-sta-s. But when writing, a syllable cannot be transferred if it is expressed in one vowel sound.
The letters b, c, d, d, z, k, l, m, n, p, p, s, t, f, x can mean both hard and soft sounds. For example: [sound], [s"d"es"], [bridge], [me"s"t"] (revenge). In addition, the softness of consonants (excluding hissing ones) in the letter is indicated by the letters e, e, u, i, and, b, and the hardness is indicated by the letters e, o, y, a, s. For example: measure - mayor, pen - peer, mashed potatoes - blizzard. This designation principle is called the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
However, in Russian graphics there are also deviations from the syllabic principle - the writing of vowels after the letters zh, sh, ts, ch, u. The sounds [zh], [w], [c] in Russian are always solid, after them it would be necessary to write only the letters a, o, y, s, e. However, this is contrary to the rules of spelling, and we write lived, sewed, tin, six, circus, whole. And the sounds [h "], denoted by the letters h and u, are always soft, but after them the letters a, o, y are written, as after hard ones (bowl, miracle, pike, prim).
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