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Dialectics- a method of thinking and the doctrine based on it about the universal development of nature, society and man.
Dialectics includes the doctrine of the universal connection of phenomena and their development, the contradictions of being and thinking, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, breaks of gradualness, leaps, the negation of negation, etc.
As a philosophical science, dialectics has a long history, rooted in antiquity, but as if rediscovered in an idealistic form in the works of representatives of German classical philosophy, Kant and Hegel.
The term “dialectics” in the school of Socrates and Plato meant the ability to conduct a conversation in such a way as to reveal contradictions in the opponent’s judgments and in this way find the truth. Already this approach contained the germ of the modern understanding of dialectics as a doctrine that considers the material world and the world of ideas in movement, contradictions, and development. Dialectics includes objective and subjective dialectics.
Objective dialectics- this is the dialectic of the real world, nature and society, it expresses the continuous development and change, the emergence and destruction of natural and social phenomena.
Subjective dialectics- this is a reflection of objective dialectics, the dialectics of being in a person’s head, in his consciousness. In other words, objective dialectics reigns throughout all nature, and subjective dialectics, dialectical thinking is only a reflection of the movement through opposites that dominates all nature. This means that the dependence here is this: the dialectic of things determines the dialectic of ideas.
Dialectics, as a doctrine of development, examines three circles of problems: the features that distinguish development from any other types of changes, the question of the source of development and its forms.
Dialectical principles
ü Concreteness of truth
The concreteness of truth or the denial of the existence of abstractness of information means that truth is bound by certain conditions in which the object is located, reflects strictly defined aspects of the object, etc. The highest level of concreteness consists in a comprehensive knowledge of the object, taking into account all the existing moments of a given stage of the contradictory development of the object, in contrast to the eclectic mixture of all aspects and features of the phenomenon.
ü Unity of the logical and historical, abstract and concrete
The dialectic of the abstract and the concrete is a typical case of dialectical unity, the mutual transition of opposites. Abstraction in thinking is only a vanishing moment in the process of reflecting concrete reality in its general connection and development, i.e. in the process of achieving a specific truth. Abstract consideration of the subject appears here as a step, as a moment of concrete consideration. Abstraction is thus interpreted not as a goal, but only as a means of thinking, ascending from the abstract to the concrete.
The principles of development of the objective world must be considered in the form in which they actually occurred. Any object, any phenomenon can be understood and correctly assessed only if they are considered in specific historical conditions, in historical logical connections with other phenomena and objects. From this, two interrelated methods are derived for reproducing the historical processes of the development of an object: the logical method, with the help of which the development of the object is reproduced in the form of a theory of the system, and the historical method, with the help of which the development of the object is reproduced in the form of the history of the system.
Laws of dialectics.
1) : the source and driving force of development is the resolution of internal contradictions in things and phenomena. Everything that exists consists of opposites (good and evil, light and darkness, heredity and variability in living nature, order and chaos, etc.). Opposites– these are such aspects, moments, objects that at the same time:
a) inextricably linked (there is no good without evil, light without darkness);
b) are mutually exclusive;
c) them struggle– contradictory interaction gives impetus to development (order is born out of chaos, goodness grows stronger in overcoming evil, etc.).
The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula: the division of the one into opposites, their struggle, the transformation of the struggle into an insoluble (antagonistic) conflict - a contradiction, the victory of one of the opposites (which, in turn, also represents a new unity of opposites).
2) Law of Negation of Negation: in development there are three successive stages, which both deny and continue each other.
His essence: the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns into the old and is denied by more and more new things, etc. For example, a change in socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process), the evolution of the family (children “deny” their parents, but they themselves become parents and are already “denied” by their own children, who in turn become parents, etc. ).
The law of negation of negation expresses the progressive, successive nature of development and has the shape of a spiral, repetition at a higher stage of some properties of a lower one, “a return supposedly to the old,” but at a higher stage of development.
3) The law of the relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes: a change in one of the parameters that violates the measure inevitably leads to changes in the other parameter.
The essence of the law is as follows . The gradual accumulation of quantitative changes (the degree and rate of development of objects, the number of its elements, spatial dimensions, temperature, etc.) at a certain point in time leads to the achievement measures(the boundaries within which a given quality remains itself, for example, for water - 0-100), occurs quantum leap(transition from one qualitative state to another, for example, water, reaching a temperature of 0 degrees, turns into ice), as a result, a new quality arises.
The laws of dialectics are universal in nature and describe any development processes.
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The laws of dialectics were first formulated by
Aristotle
R. Descartes
J.-J. Rousseau
G.V.F.
Laws of dialectics as universal principles of development
One of the basic principles of dialectics
Isolation principle
Development principle
The principle of complementarity
Uncertainty principle
Is not a law of dialectics
Law of Negation of Negation
The Law of the Intertwining of Causes and Effects
The law of the transition of quantity to quality
The law of unity and struggle of opposites
Dialectical source of self-movement and development of nature, society and knowledge
Contradiction
Necessity
The key point of the dialectical concept is the principle
Controversies
Systematicity
Extras
The law of dialectics, answering the question about the source of development
The law of unity and struggle of opposites
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones
The Law of the Intertwining of Causes and Effects
None of the laws of dialectics can answer this question
The law of dialectics, revealing the source of self-motion and development of the objective world and knowledge,
Negations of negations
The law of dialectics, revealing the most general mechanism of development
Transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones
Unity and struggle of opposites
Negations of negations
Law of conservation and transformation of energy
The law of dialectics characterizing the direction, form and result of the development process
Negations of negations
Transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones
Unity and struggle of opposites
Law of conservation and transformation of energy
Directed, qualitative change
Development
Movement
Divergence
Convergence
The set of essential necessary properties of a thing constitutes it:
Quantity
Quality
The internal content of an object in the unity of all its properties and relationships is expressed by the category
Entities
existence
Quantities
Theory of self-organization of complex systems
Synergetics
Bifurcation
Monadology
Materialism
NATURE OF SCIENCE, FORMS AND METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Theory scientific cognition is called
Ontology
Axiology
Epistemology
Evolutionary epistemology
Which of the following is not one of the basic features of scientific knowledge?
Validity
Evidence
irrefutability
Systematicity
According to its functional purpose and research objectives, knowledge is divided into
Fundamental and applied
Accurate and approximate
Reliable and probabilistic
Natural science and technical
One of the founders of the philosophy of technology
K. Tsiolkovsky
P. Engelmeyer
M. Faraday
The Greek word "techne" originally meant
knowledge, science
Art, craftsmanship
method, language, speech
machine, device
Sensory cognition differs from rational cognition in that
The first operates with facts, the second with rational arguments.
The first is emotional, the second is neutral
The first is based on sensations, the second - on reason.
The first is more adequate than the second
The original, simplest form of sensory knowledge
Perception
Measurement
Feeling
Performance
Form of rational knowledge:
Feeling
Performance
Concept
Perception
Thought that identifies and generalizes objects based on an indication of their essential and necessary properties
Inference
Judgment
Concept
Syllogism
A statement that affirms or denies something
Inference
Judgment
Refutation
A form of thinking that reflects the presence of a connection between an object and its attribute, between objects, as well as the fact of the existence of an object
Judgment
Perception
Feeling
Form of empirical knowledge
Judgment
Hypothesis
Fact
Problem
A statement based on the combination of many related facts
Hypothetical multiplet
Theoretical law
Empirical generalization
Rational synthesis
Scientific assumption, assumption that needs additional justification
Inference
Hypothesis
Verification
Interpretation
The highest form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections of a certain area of reality
Empirical basis
Paradigm
Theory
The most important functions of scientific theory include
Communicative
Emotional
Incentive
Systematizing
Scientific hypothesis refers to
Conceptual means of cognition
Technical means of cognition
Transcendental means of knowledge
Physiological means of cognition
This definition: “The study of an object under controlled or artificially created conditions” refers to:
observation
measurement
Experiment
idealization
Intentional, purposeful perception of an object, phenomenon in order to study its properties, characteristics of its course and behavior
Feeling
Modeling
Experiment
Observation
Study of an object in controlled or artificially created conditions
Observation
Measurement
Experiment
Idealization
Producing a general conclusion based on generalization of particular premises
Induction
Abstraction
Deduction
Logical derivation of particular consequences from the general position
Induction
Deduction
Formalization
The process of moving from general premises to conclusions about particular cases
Deduction
Induction
Abstraction
Mental or real decomposition of an object into its component elements
Analysis
Abstraction
Induction
The procedure for mentally dividing a whole into parts
Deduction
Induction
Analysis
Combining the elements of the object being studied, highlighted in the analysis, into a single whole
Synthesis
Abstraction
Analogy
Induction
A method not used in scientific and technical knowledge
Raman-synthesizing
Hermeneutic
Experiment
The approximate calculation method is most widely used in
Humanities
Natural Sciences
Technical Sciences
Mathematical Sciences
Identification of cause-and-effect relationships, subsuming individual phenomena under a general law is characteristic of
Understanding
Explanations
Verification
Descriptions
According to T. Kuhn, “a scientific achievement recognized by all, which over a period of time provides the scientific community with a model for posing problems and solving them”
Research program
Scientific revolution
Paradigm
J.-P. Sartre
E. Fromm
K. Jaspers
First defined man as a “social animal” (zoon politikon)
Aristotle
Augustine
The thought: “Man is the measure of all things” belongs to
Protagoras
“This is social in nature, relatively stable and occurring throughout life, a psychological formation that represents a system of socially significant human traits”
Individuality
Personality
Personality is
Personality is an innate quality of every individual
Not every person is a personality, only the outstanding one
Dialectics
1. General concept of dialectics and development .
Dialectics - a theory of the development of all things recognized in modern philosophy and a philosophical method based on it. Dialectics theoretically reflects the development of matter, spirit, consciousness, cognition and other aspects of reality through:
laws of dialectics;
principles.
The main problem of dialectics is what is development?
Development - a general property and the most important feature of matter: a change in material and ideal objects, and not a simple (mechanical) change, but a change as self-development, the result of which is a transition to a higher level of organization.
Development - the highest form of movement. In turn, movement is the basis of development.
Movement is also an internal property of matter and a unique phenomenon of the surrounding reality, since movement is characterized by integrity, continuity and at the same time the presence of contradictions (a moving body does not occupy a permanent place in space - at each moment of movement the body is in a certain place and at the same time is no longer in it).
Basic dialectical laws of development
Movement is also a way of communication in the material world.
2. General concept of the laws of dialectics .
Among the ways of understanding the dialectics of development - laws, categories, principles - the laws of dialectics are fundamental.
Law – these are objective (independent of human will), general, stable, necessary, repeating connections between entities and within entities.
The laws of dialectics differ from the laws of other sciences (physics, mathematics, etc.) in their universality and universality, since they:
cover all spheres of the surrounding reality;
reveal the deep foundations of movement and development - their source, the mechanism of transition from old to new, connections between old and new.
Stand out three basic laws of dialectics :
unity and struggle of opposites;
transition from quantity to quality;
negation negation;
3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites .
The law of unity and struggle of opposites is that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being united by nature, are in struggle and contradict each other (example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer , youth and old age, etc.).
The unity and struggle of opposite principles is the internal source of movement and development of all things.
Hegel, considered the founder of dialectics, had a special view of unity and the struggle of opposites. He derived two concepts - “identity” and “difference” and showed the mechanism of their interaction leading to movement.
According to Hegel, every object and phenomenon has two main qualities - identity and difference. Identity means that an object (phenomenon, idea) is equal to itself, that is, a given object is precisely this given object. At the same time, in an object that is identical to itself, there is something that strives to go beyond the scope of the object, to violate its identity.
Contradiction, the struggle between the same identity and difference leads, according to Hegel, to change (self-change) of the object - movement. Examples: there is an idea that is identical to itself, at the same time, it itself contains a difference - something that strives to go beyond the scope of the idea; the result of their struggle is a change in the idea (for example, the transformation of an idea into matter from the point of view of idealism). Or: there is a society that is identical to itself, but there are forces in it that are cramped within the framework of this society; their struggle leads to a change in the quality of society, its renewal.
We can also distinguish different types of struggle:
a struggle that brings benefits to both sides (for example, constant competition, where each side “catches up” with the other and moves to a higher qualitative level of development);
struggle, where one side regularly gains the upper hand over the other, but the defeated side persists and is an “irritant” for the winning side, due to which the winning side moves to a higher level of development;
antagonistic struggle, where one side can only survive by completely destroying the other.
In addition to fighting, other types of interaction are possible:
assistance (when both parties provide reciprocal assistance to each other without fighting);
solidarity, alliance (the parties do not provide direct assistance to each other, but have common interests and act in the same direction);
neutrality (the parties have different interests, do not promote each other, but do not fight each other);
Mutualism is a complete relationship (to accomplish any task, the parties must act only together and cannot act autonomously from each other).
4. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
The second law of dialectics is the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
Quality is a certainty identical to being, a stable system of certain characteristics and connections of an object.
Quantity – countable parameters of an object or phenomenon (number, size, volume, weight, size, etc.).
Measure is the unity of quantity and quality.
With certain quantitative changes, quality necessarily changes.
However, quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a moment when a change in quality leads to a change in the measure (that is, the coordinate system in which the quality previously changed under the influence of quantitative changes) - to a radical transformation of the essence of the subject. Such moments are called “nodes,” and the transition itself to another state is understood in philosophy as a “leap.”
We can give some examples of the operation of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
If you heat water successively by one degree Celsius, that is, change quantitative parameters - temperature, then the water will change its quality - it will become hot (due to the disruption of structural bonds, atoms will begin to move several times faster). When the temperature reaches 100 degrees, a radical change in the quality of the water will occur - it will turn into steam (that is, the previous “coordinate system” of the heating process will collapse - water and the previous system of connections). A temperature of 100 degrees in this case will be a node, and the transition of water into steam (the transition of one quality measure to another) will be a jump. The same can be said about cooling water and turning it into ice at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius.
If a body is given greater and greater speed - 100, 200, 1000, 2000, 7000, 7190 meters per second - it will accelerate its movement (change quality within a stable measure). When the body is given a speed of 7191 m/s (“nodal” speed), the body will overcome gravity and become an artificial satellite of the Earth (the coordinate system itself changes, the change in quality = measure, a jump will occur).
In nature, it is not always possible to determine the nodal moment. The transition of quantity into a fundamentally new quality can occur:
sharply, instantly;
imperceptibly, evolutionarily.
Examples of the first case were discussed above.
As for the second option (an imperceptible, evolutionary fundamental change in quality - measure), a good illustration of this process was the ancient Greek aporia “Heap” and “Bald”: “When adding which grain, the aggregate of grains will turn into a heap?”; “If a hair falls out of your head, then from what moment, with the loss of which specific hair, can a person be considered bald?” That is, the edge of a specific change in quality may be elusive.
5. The law of negation of negation.
The law of the negation of negation is that the new always negates the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from new into old and is negated by more and more new things.
change of socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process);
“relay of generations”;
change of tastes in culture, music;
evolution of the family (children are partly parents, but at a new stage);
daily death of old blood cells, the emergence of new ones.
The denial of old forms by new ones is the reason and mechanism of progressive development. However, the question of the direction of development is debatable in philosophy. The following main points of view are distinguished:
development is only a progressive process, a transition from lower to higher forms, that is, ascending development;
development can be both ascending and descending;
development is chaotic and has no direction.
Practice shows that of the three points of view, the closest to the true is the second: development can be both upward and downward, although the general trend is still upward.
the human body develops and grows stronger (ascending development), but then, developing further, it weakens and becomes decrepit (descending development);
the historical process follows an upward direction of development, but with recessions - the heyday of the Roman Empire was replaced by its fall, but then a new upward development of Europe followed (Renaissance, modern times, etc.).
Thus, development rather does not proceed in a linear manner (in a straight line), but in a spiral, with each turn of the spiral repeating the previous ones, but at a new, higher level.
6. Basic principles of dialectics.
The main principles of dialectics are:
principle of universal connection;
principle of consistency;
principle of causality;
the principle of historicism.
Universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness, interdependence of all its components - objects, phenomena, processes.
Connections can be:
external and internal;
direct and indirect;
genetic and functional;
spatial and temporal;
random and natural.
The most common type of communication is external and internal. Example: internal connections of the human body as a biological system, external connections of a person as elements of a social system.
Three basic laws of dialectics:
1 - unity of struggle and opposites;
2 - mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
3 - the law of negation of negation.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites called the core of dialectics. Firstly, it characterizes the source and inner content of all movement and development in nature, society and consciousness. Secondly, this law has a special form of universality, because its action permeates not only all phenomena of the material and spiritual world, but also other laws of dialectics. Main The categories of this law are identity, difference, opposites, contradictions . Identity reflects the relative stability and immutability of an object. The difference fixes the moment of variability of phenomena. The limiting case of significant difference is opposition.
Opposites are internally interrelated, aspects and tendencies inherent in the objects and phenomena themselves, which presuppose each other and, at the same time, exclude each other, because differ sharply from each other in their properties, directions of action and functions performed. Contradiction is a form of interaction of opposites . The specificity of a contradiction is determined by the uniqueness of the process of their emergence, the degree of their organization, and the features of their resolution. Internal contradiction is the interaction of opposite sides within a given system. External contradiction is the interaction between different systems.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones answers the question: how, in what way does development occur, i.e. reveals the mechanism of development. The main categories of this law are: quality, property, quantity, measure and leap. Quality is “immediate certainty identical with being,” i.e. that which distinguishes a given thing from all others, without which it does not exist. Quality is the certainty of things , which determines their integrity, stability and specific character. Quality is manifested through properties. Properties, in turn, are manifested through the interactions of objects and represent a way of manifesting a certain side of an object in relation to other objects. Quantity is the “removed” quality. Quantity reflects the external, formal relationship of objects, their parts, properties and connections, expresses number, magnitude, volume, degree manifestations of one or another property.
Hesiod: “Keep moderation in everything and do your work on time.” Thales: “Measure is the best.” Democritus: “If you go too far, the most pleasant things will become the most unpleasant.”
Basic principles and laws of dialectics.
Augustine: “A measure is a quantitative limit of a given quality.” A measure is an interval within which quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative changes. A leap is a transition from one quality to another.
Exists classification of "jumps":
— according to the flow time: slow and instant.
— on implementation mechanism: by “explosion” (the quality changes entirely) and gradually.
— in depth of qualitative transformations: individual (within the boundaries of the basic quality) and general (associated with the transformation of the very basis of things).
Law of Negation of Negation answers the question: in which direction development is taking place (in a spiral). Hegel understood negation as “sublation”, as moment of connection between old and new , i.e. negation, as a philosophical concept, reflects the complex nature of the relationships that arise and exist in the process of change and development of the subject. You can select two points of negation:
— destruction of the old, outdated , not meeting the changed conditions;
— maintaining new positive , corresponding to the new conditions.
Need to distinguish the dialectical understanding of negation as a moment of connection between the old and the new from the metaphysical understanding of negation as the complete destruction of the old . The essence of the law of negation of negation expresses Hegel's triad:
1) thesis, or initial statement;
2) denial of the thesis (antithesis);
3) synthesis (negation of the previous stage, i.e. negation of negation).
Progress is a form of development that characterizes the direction of development. However, not all development is progress. Progress is development in which a transition occurs from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. The reverse process is called regression. Social progress- this is a form of development of society and its individual aspects, in which a transition is made from lower to higher, from a less perfect to a more perfect state.
Cause is a phenomenon that brings another phenomenon to life. Consequence- the result of a cause. Determinism – the doctrine of the universal causality of phenomena. Indeterminism - a doctrine that denies the universal causality of phenomena. It is necessary to distinguish the reason from the reason.
Occasion is a phenomenon that precedes a phenomenon, but does not cause it. Mechanistic determinism denied causality in the microcosm, because the determinism characteristic of the macrocosm does not manifest itself there: knowing the momentum and coordinates of the body at a given moment in time, you can always determine the momentum and coordinates of the body at any other moment in time. But in the microworld there are other laws that are described by the Schrödinger equation. Cause and effect cannot change places, however, the effect can be the cause of another phenomenon.
Necessity and chance– these are philosophical categories that reflect two types of connections in the material world: necessity follows from the internal essence of phenomena and denotes their law, order and structure. Necessity there is something that should happen under given conditions. Against, accident - this is a type of connection that is caused by non-essential, external, factors incidental to a given phenomenon. A chance is something that may or may not happen, it may happen one way or another. Still not an opinion chance is a form of manifestation and addition of necessity. Hard determinism of Democritus manifested itself in the fact that he claimed that Since all phenomena have a cause, they happen with necessity. This understanding of these categories led to the reduction of necessity to chance (“Turtle”). According to fatalism , All phenomena occur according to the will of fate, fate, fate, i.e. inevitably. Voluntarism is the other extreme. Voluntarism denies objective necessity and relies on the subjective will of people.
Essence- this is something hidden, deep, arriving in things, their internal connections and being the basis of all forms of their external manifestation. Essence is a set of fundamental laws and properties of objects that determine the trend of their development. It expresses the internal, stable side of phenomena. Phenomenon – this is a specific property of objects in which an entity is found. The essence is general, and the phenomenon is individual . The essence appears and the appearance is essential.
Synergetics
The creator of the synergetic direction and the inventor of the term "synergetics" is a professor at the University of Stuttgart and director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics and Synergetics Herman Haken(b. 1927). The term “synergetics” itself comes from from the Greek "synergen" — assistance, cooperation, “togetherness”.
Synergetics according to the definition of its creator, German physicist G. Hakendeals with the study of systems consisting of many subsystems of a very different nature, such as electrons, atoms, molecules, cells, neutrons, mechanical elements, photons, animal organs and even people... This is the science of self-organization of complex systems, of the transformation of chaos into order.
G. Haken said that calling the scientific direction he proposed “synergetics” was accidental and unprincipled. The undertaking of G. Haken turned out to be fruitful precisely thanks to the naturally understood associations of synergetics with self-organization.
Self-organization, according to G. Haken , – it is “the spontaneous formation of highly ordered structures from seeds or even from chaos”. The transition from a disordered state to an ordered one occurs due to the joint and synchronous action of many subsystems (or elements) that form the system.
Both synergetics and the theory of self-organization study the processes of self-organization and self-disorganization in open non-equilibrium systems of physical, chemical, biological, ecological, social and other nature. Today science considers all known systems, from the smallest (elementary particles) to the largest (the Universe), to be open, exchanging energy, (or) matter and (or) information with the environment and being, as a rule, in a state far from thermodynamic balance. And the development of such systems, as it has become known, proceeds through the formation of increasing order. On this basis, the idea of self-organization of material systems arose.
The idea of self-organization of systems generated by an increase in the number of studies in various fields of natural science devoted to cooperative effects in open nonequilibrium systems. Initially, in the 60s of the twentieth century, such studies were carried out independently in different disciplines; later (in the 70s) they became the subject of comparison, and many similarities were discovered in them.
It turned out that all different-scale self-organizing systems, regardless of what branch of science they are studied, be it physics, chemistry, biology or social sciences, have a single algorithm for the transition from less complex and less ordered states to more complex and more ordered states. This opens up the possibility of a unified theoretical description of such processes in time and space. Development theories of self-organization began in the middle of the twentieth century and continues at the moment, and according to several, converging directions.
B36 3. The concept of nature.
The development of all processes in the world is subject to certain laws. A law is a stable, repeating connection common to many phenomena. The law expresses the objective need for change.
The main difference between the laws of dialectics is their universality. Dialectical laws have no boundaries. They operate both in nature and in society. Human activity is subject to them - both practical and spiritual. The laws of dialectics and time restrictions do not have.
The laws of dialectics play a crucial role in characterizing development. The three basic laws of dialectics reveal precisely these parameters of development. The law of unity and struggle of opposites explains why everything moves and changes. The law of the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative answers the question of how everything changes. The law of negation of negation shows what the direction of change is, where everything is moving.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
Among the basic dialectical laws, this law is rightfully considered the main one. He establishes the nature of the most fundamental relationships in the world - cause-and-effect, arguing that the cause and driving force of all changes is in the interdependence and interaction, unity and struggle of dialectical opposites.
Studying the law of unity and struggle of opposites involves considering the categories “unity”, “struggle”, “opposites”, “identity”, “difference”, “contradiction”.
The category “struggle” reflects the active interaction of opposites. The unity of opposites does not mean the abolition of their alternativeness. It rather determines the form of their coexistence. The struggle of opposites is absolute, while their unity is relative. For example, the introduction of a single European currency does not indicate that the contradictions in the economic interests of the countries belonging to the EEC have been overcome. The contradiction of national interests is obvious, but the real threat of falling under dollar pressure forces us to pacify national ambitions and seek a compromise.
The category of “opposites” indicates the mutual exclusivity of phenomena. Production and consumption are mutually exclusive processes, but from an economic point of view their opposition is relative: they are two sides of the same phenomenon.
The category “identity” of opposites expresses such a level of correlation between opposites as their partial coincidence, correspondence. The identity of opposites is a temporary, relative state. Thus, the interests of the employer and the employee in a market, liberal economy are opposite. The employer strives by reducing wage costs to reduce the cost of products in order to increase its competitiveness and gain additional profit.
The employee, while demanding an increase in wages, simultaneously opposes the policy of reducing employment. Trade unions and the state, interested in the implementation of social programs, are joining the struggle. As a result of the work of tripartite commissions, parity of interests is achieved. For some time there is peace. The contract expires and everything starts all over again.
The category “difference” of opposites characterizes the relations of opposites that appear after a violation of identity. Strictly speaking, differences also exist at the stage of identity of opposites. Essentially, the differences between opposites are universal. The differences may be minor or significant. As differences grow, they turn into contradictions.
The development and resolution of contradictions goes through a number of stages. The first of them is dominated by the identity of opposites. The differences are insignificant and do not violate the stability of the existence of the phenomenon. Contradictions are hidden, but they exist and develop.
The second stage reveals inconsistencies in the existence of the phenomenon. Balance and harmony are replaced by tension and conflicts arise. If the growth of contradictions continues, then development enters the final third stage for this phenomenon, ending with the resolution of contradictions through its transition (transformation) into another state or into another phenomenon. With the transformation of a phenomenon, old contradictions are replaced by new ones, since a new phenomenon must also have a new source of development.
The resolution of contradictions is accompanied by the birth of a new quality.
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
Metaphysical thinking recognizes changes either quantitative or qualitative. The relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes is the discovery of dialectical philosophy. This connection is represented by the corresponding law, which establishes that changes in the quality and essence of an object occur as a result of changes in its quantitative characteristics, increasing in a certain direction. A new quality of an object is born from the old due to quantitative changes.
Understanding the mechanism of action and the meaning of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones requires an analysis of the philosophical categories “property”, “quantity”, “quality”, “measure”, “leap”.
The category “property” occupies a special place in the philosophical worldview. One world is diverse. The diversity of the world is revealed through the differences in the phenomena that form it as a limitless multitude. Each phenomenon also represents a certain variety: it changes its state, it is multifaceted. Philosophy uses the category “property” to express one of the sides, facets of a phenomenon. A property, strictly speaking, is not equal to this side itself, but to what it is in the process of interaction with other sides and other phenomena.
The category “quality” reflects a set of basic, that is, necessary, stable, recurring, general properties of phenomena. They are usually called essential, since they determine the essence and dynamics of the development of phenomena. The category “quality” largely coincides with the category “essence”.
G. Hegel noted that quality is something with the loss of which a phenomenon ceases to be itself. Indeed, quality characterizes not only the essence of a phenomenon, but also its integrity. Quality is not reduced to the sum of the essential properties of a phenomenon. It determines the way they interact. To know quality means to identify essential properties and present them in the form of a system.
The category “quantity” defines an object, a process in terms of its magnitude, duration, intensity and involves numerical methods of assessment. Unlike quality, which up to a certain point remains invariant (unchanged) in the development of a phenomenon, quantity can change without changing the essence of the phenomenon.
The relationship between quantity and quality illustrates the dialectic of the unity of opposites. Quality expresses the sustainable side of development. Quantity confirms variability in development. Their unity is due to the existence of the phenomenon that they characterize.
The category “leap” reflects the process of transition from one quality to another. A leap is a form of such a transition. A new quality is the result of resolving contradictions. At a certain point, quantitative changes are interrupted. Continuous movement is replaced by spasmodic (discrete) movement.
The forms of the leap are varied. They vary in scale, content and mode of expression. The specific form of the leap depends on the nature of the developing phenomenon, on the nature of the contradictions and the conditions under which the evolutionary process is interrupted. Knowing the conditions, we are able to control some forms of the jump. A clear example of this is the creation of nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, and skillful anti-crisis management in the economy.
The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones reflects the order of the relationship between continuous and abrupt changes in the world, in the development of knowledge about it. It is important that not only quantitative changes determine qualitative ones, but also qualitative ones determine quantitative ones. Thus, the transition of transport to electric traction inevitably leads to an increase in the speed and volume of transportation, to a new organization of the traffic system, and a new regulatory framework.
The law of negation of negation.
This law characterizes the most important aspect of development - its direction. The uniqueness of the law lies in the fact that it reveals itself in time, and we are talking about significant intervals of time.
It is not difficult to explain this feature of the law of negation of negation. The double negation contained in the law indicates the cyclical nature of development reflected in the law. The need for repeated denial presupposes a length of time, and a considerable one.
Outside of philosophical interpretation, denial is presented in a simplified way - as a refusal to accept or agree with something, or as the opposite of affirmation. Someone expresses some idea, another, disagreeing, rejects (denies) it. The attitude of denial is identified with a negative attitude towards something.
In a philosophical sense, negation was originally understood as a change in phenomena. "Change" - a concept reflecting any deviation from an existing state - has acquired a new meaning over time. Further, “denial” became a concept expressing a fundamental change in the phenomenon as a whole, and not in its individual characteristics. It is associated with destruction, abolition, loss of an object, a process as such, the cessation of its existence. The internal combustion engine left steam locomotives out of business, sending them into the past. The electric motor is replacing diesel locomotives.
Metaphysical philosophy defines negation as the cessation of being. Death denies life. Default kills the economy's hopes for investment. The grain, once in the mill, becomes flour. Metaphysics reflects the external, visible side of negation.
Dialectics considers negation as the most important element in the development of the world. Therefore, in the dialectical understanding, negation is not the cessation of being, but a change in a specific form of being. Development does not end with denial. It continues in two directions depending on the nature of the denial. If denial destroys the source of development, for example, an enterprise is closed due to bankruptcy, then the movement temporarily takes the form of entropic changes. The property remaining after debts are paid is sold, and employees are fired. However, this does not mean the end. The proceeds will be put into circulation and other production will arise.
When negation is not associated with the source of development (for example, enterprise restructuring), then development continues as a progressive movement.
Dialectical negation is a natural process of renewal, the replacement of an old quality with a new one, the result of the self-development of phenomena. It preserves the connection between old and new.
In the process of dialectical negation, what is obsolete and hinders development in the old is abolished. At the same time, the sprouts of the new and reasonable are preserved and strengthened. Denial cannot be absolute. It is always relative (not in form, but in essence). The phenomenon does not disappear without a trace, does not turn into nothing. It changes the forms of its movement, its specific appearance.
The law of the negation of negation indicates that development occurs through continuity. Through the double negation, the progressive nature of development is revealed: a new, more perfect one appears naturally (first negation) and just as naturally, having developed, it will give way to what is more reasonable and perfect (second negation).
The visual manifestation of the law of “negation of negation” is usually compared to movement in a spiral, demonstrating an ascending moment of development. The spiral movement partially repeats the form of the phenomenon, but the content changes. It is improved based on the experience of previous development.
HIGHER FINANCIAL AND LAW COLLEGE
Test
In the discipline "Philosophy"
topic: Laws of dialectics
Completed by a 3rd year student
Specialty: accounting accounting
Kokrin Andrey Igorevich
Checked by: teacher
Selyakova A.A.
Luza, 2012
1. Historical forms of dialectics and alternatives
Basic laws of dialectics
1The law of unity and struggle of opposites
2 The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa
3 Law of dialectical synthesis (negation of negation)
Used Books
1. Historical forms of dialectics and alternatives
The change in historical forms of dialectics occurred in such a way that each subsequent form absorbed everything valuable that the previous one contained. German classical philosophy, having inherited all the positive achievements of ancient dialectics, went further along the path of transforming it into a scientific-rational philosophical method. G. Hegel was the first to systematically study it and formulated its fundamental and unchangeable feature, gave an elementary formula, according to which the essence of dialectics lies in the comprehension of opposites, in their unity. For G. Hegel, dialectical thinking is the only means of finding truth, and contradiction (the unity of opposing statements) is the only condition under which dialectics is revealed. However, G. Hegel's dialectics was built on idealistic premises, excluding the very possibility of rational dialectics. This is the dialectic of the world spirit, existing and developing on its own basis and only indirectly declaring itself in the nature and consciousness of man.
In contrast to the concept of G. Hegel, K. Marx and F. Engels considered development as an attribute of matter, developed a materialist dialectic, within the framework of which the question arose about the relationship between objective and subjective dialectics. Objective dialectics studies the features of the manifestation of the system of laws of development in objective reality, i.e. in the material world. It includes the dialectics of natural and social processes. Subjective dialectics has as its subject the peculiarities of the implementation of the laws of development in human consciousness. The identity and difference between objective and subjective dialectics is manifested in the fact that:
subjective dialectics is determined by objective dialectics;
the first reflects the second;
subjective dialectics has relative independence in relation to objective dialectics;
their unity is the process of unfolding the relationship: thinking - history - nature.
Thus, in the process of development, dialectics was systematically and meaningfully enriched, while maintaining conceptual unity at each of the qualitatively different stages.
Dialectics opposes two ways of explaining the world that accompany its historical development, both “on the right” and “on the left.” “On the right” is metaphysics. “On the left” - sophistry and eclecticism. According to metaphysics, the world, in its structure, is a collection of objects, phenomena, and processes that are not interconnected by mutual transitions. As for the state of the world, metaphysics recognizes movement and development only within a limited framework, as decrease and increase, as repetition.
Metaphysics arose in antiquity, despite numerous empirical confirmations of Heraclitean dialectics. Representatives of the Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno, etc.) put forward the concept of unchanging, motionless, stable, absolutely definite (equal to itself) being. Thinkers of later eras introduced new aspects into it. In the 17th - 18th centuries, the metaphysical way of thinking was legitimate and necessary. This was due to the need for a preliminary study of the objects themselves as such in their stability, immutability, without their interrelation, in order to then systematically study the changes occurring with them.
The development of natural science in the 19th century showed the complete failure of metaphysics. In the twentieth century, it would be absurd to reject the universal connection of phenomena and their development. A new metaphysics is emerging, concentrating its efforts on the search for various options for interpretation and interpretation of development. It began to be viewed as a monotonous process, having a strictly linear orientation, or as an eternal movement in the same circle, as a sum, a connection of states of rest.
One should distinguish from dialectics its illusory and imaginary versions, which speculate on the basic provisions and requirements of dialectics - flexibility, mobility, inconsistency, fluidity and relativity of concepts.
Sophistry is a one-sided, subjectivist arbitrary method of argumentation, which, using the flexibility and relativity of concepts, snatches a random, insignificant feature from the general connection of reality and, through clever techniques, tries to substantiate and justify it as essential and determining. Eclecticism is an unprincipled combination of heterogeneous, incompatible, opposing views. In contrast to metaphysics, sophistry and eclecticism absolutize the mobility and relativity of concepts.
Thus, a brief excursion into the history of dialectics and its alternatives shows that since the middle of the 19th century, the idea of development has become one of the central ideological and methodological principles of thinking.
2. Basic laws of dialectics
The main three laws of dialectics are: this
The law of unity and struggle of opposites. (Law of dialectical inconsistency).
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa.
The law of the negation of negation (dialectical synthesis).
2.1 The law of unity and struggle of opposites
This law serves as the core of dialectics, since it reveals the cause, the driving force of development, and answers the question: “Why does development occur?” According to him, the development of all systems occurs through the bifurcation of the whole into mutually exclusive sides, moments, trends - dialectical opposites, the interaction of which, on the one hand, defines a given system as a whole, and on the other, serves as the reason for its development. The law has two aspects:
The essence of any system includes opposites;
The interaction, or struggle, of opposites determines development.
The terms “fight” and “interaction” are used interchangeably. Two interacting opposites constitute a contradiction. Consequently, the reason for development is the presence of contradictions.
If we consider a system in a static state, abstracting from its development, then we can see in it various elements, connections, relationships, and it is not always possible to notice the presence of contradictions. But when we consider a system in development, we certainly discover in it the presence of struggling opposites. Dialectical opposites include only those that exist and interact in integral self-developing and self-regulating systems.
Dialectical opposites are characterized by the following properties: objectivity of existence, the presence of similarities and differences in their content, interaction, interdependence. The latter means that opposites cannot exist separately from each other; they exist only as part of a given contradiction. This property is expressed by the concept of “unity”. Such unity always exists as long as this system exists. It is present both when the opposites are balanced, and when one of the opposites is leading, predominant. Opposites fight and deny each other, but exist only together. Owners and employees, producers and consumers, men and women, processes of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system, cognition and practice, sensory and rational in cognition - none of the above can exist without its opposite.
Any system is a complex formation. Therefore, it appears as a unity of opposites not in one, but in many respects and includes a totality of contradictions. The following types of contradictions are distinguished: internal and external, basic and non-basic, antagonistic and non-antagonistic. Internal contradictions are understood as relationships between opposite sides of a given object or phenomenon. External contradictions are understood as the relationship between a given object or phenomenon and the environment. Antagonistic refers to contradictions between social groups whose differences in interests are greater than their similarities (slaves - slave owners, entrepreneurs - racketeers, etc.). There are also constructive and destructive contradictions. The first of them, when resolved, lead to the progress of the system, the second - to its regression or even destruction. According to the law of dialectical inconsistency, the development of systems occurs in stages. At each stage, two phases are distinguished: the phase of the emergence and development of main contradictions; phase of resolving these contradictions. In the second phase, the system is qualitatively transformed and, with progressive development, moves to a higher level of organization, and with regressive development, to a lower one. At a new level, contradictions arise, they become aggravated, then resolved, and so on. If, after crisis and regression, the system is transformed in such a way that constructive contradictions begin to predominate in it, then regression may be replaced by progress.
The main contradiction in development in living nature is the contradiction between variability and heredity. As a result of variability (mutations), some organisms acquire new useful characteristics. These organisms have an advantage in the struggle for existence compared to those that have not acquired these characteristics. This is how a contradiction arises between more and less adapted organisms. The form of its resolution is the struggle for existence and natural selection - the preferential survival of more adapted organisms, as a result of which the species improves.
For society, the main contradiction is the contradiction between productive forces and production relations. There are still contradictions between society and nature, production and people’s needs, between different parties, social groups, and states. There are contradictions in the spheres of economics, politics, art, science, technology, and everyday life. Taken together, they determine the development of society and, ultimately, the change of socio-economic formations.
Human activity and development are also determined by special contradictions: between the level of needs and the amount of income, between love for family members and the degree of its material security, between the amount of knowledge and the desire to know more, etc. Any feeling, any motive that drives a person has in its basis of contradiction. Thus, a feeling of timidity or fear is a contradiction between the complexity of problems and one’s perceived capabilities, ambition is a contradiction between self-esteem and the assessment of a person by others. Under normal conditions, these contradictions are resolved through personal self-improvement.
2.2 The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa
dialectics sophistry metaphysics law
The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the internal source of self-movement and development of the world. The nature of the development process, the paths and forms of transition from the old state to the new are revealed by another law of dialectics - the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, which is organically connected with the law of unity and struggle of opposites.
Quality is understood as an internal certainty inseparable from objects and phenomena, a set of features that express their essence and specificity, their difference from other objects and phenomena. Since all objects and phenomena have a complex structure, quality can be considered as the unity of the structure and its constituent elements.
The quality of an object is a holistic and relatively stable set of characteristics that determines its specificity. The world around us is a continuous process of movement and development, where the moment of variability is inseparable from the moment of stability. One of the features of qualitative certainty is that, expressing this contradictory moment of development, it fixes the relative stability of the object.
The concepts of “quality” and “property” are sometimes used as single-order categories. But these concepts should be distinguished. Quality is a holistic characteristic of an object or phenomenon. Property is one of the aspects of a given object or phenomenon, their partial characteristic.
Objects and phenomena have not only a qualitative, but also a quantitative side. Quantity is the definiteness of objects and phenomena, expressing the number of properties inherent in them, the sum of their constituent parts, size, degree of intensity, etc. The quantitative definition is number. It is the number that appears in specific different
manifestations, serves as an expression of the quantitative certainty of a given object or phenomenon.
One of the laws of cognition is that, both historically and logically, the knowledge of qualities precedes the knowledge of quantitative relations. This is due to the fact that before counting or measuring something, a person must know what he is counting or measuring. Knowledge of the quantitative side of a system is the degree of deeper knowledge of this system. As quantitative relationships become known, the sciences become mathematized. K. Marx noted that “science reaches perfection only when it manages to use mathematics.” The degree of mathematization of sciences depends on the complexity of the objects being studied.
The law under consideration is that the development of systems occurs through continuous quantitative changes, which, upon reaching the limit of measure, cause a qualitative transformation; subsequently, the new quality influences the nature and speed of quantitative changes. It was previously noted that each stage of development includes a phase of emergence, development of contradictions and a phase of their resolution. The first phase is the phase of quantitative changes, the second is the phase of qualitative changes. Initially, gradual quantitative changes occur, while the quality remains the same. When quantitative changes reach a certain critical limit, the quality of the object changes relatively quickly, i.e. the old quality disappears and a new one arises.
For example, during the development of a pathological process, continuous and often imperceptible quantitative changes occur, but the state of health still remains; when the body’s indicators (temperature, pressure and blood pH) go beyond the norm, a transition occurs from a state of health to a state of illness.
The phase of quantitative change is a phase of relatively slow and continuous transformation. They can appear in the form of changes in the number of elements of the system, their size, the speed of their movement, the degree of expression of their qualities. The phase of qualitative changes is a break in gradualism, a relatively rapid transformation of the system, which is why this phase is called a leap. In general, the development process is a unity of quantitative and qualitative changes, a unity of continuity and discontinuity. Depending on the nature of the system and conditions, the duration of the phases of quantitative changes and jump can be different.
The law of the transition of quantity into quality, like other laws of dialectics, is universal. In inanimate nature, its effect can be detected in the dependence of the properties of chemical elements on the charge of the nucleus. Changing the number of protons in the nucleus means the transformation of one element into another. In living nature, the gradual accumulation of mutations leads to the emergence of new biological species. In relation to the development of society, the two phases indicated above are called evolution and revolution. Special transitions from quantity to quality take place in the development of economics, politics, and science.
In the process of development, not only quantitative changes determine qualitative ones, but also vice versa: qualitative transformation, changing the way the system exists, affects the pace and nature of subsequent quantitative changes. For example, schoolchildren and students often do not enjoy studying. But this happens when the volume of their knowledge is small. And if a person, despite negative emotions, studies, making volitional efforts, then the volume of his knowledge grows and when it reaches a critical value, then a qualitative change occurs: indifference to learning is replaced by active cognitive interest, a thirst for knowledge. Knowledge now gives a person pleasure, and even pleasure. The nature and pace of learning changes: a person begins to study systematically and intensively, as a result of which his volume of knowledge grows faster than at the first stage. Outstanding scientists at an early age achieved a critical amount of knowledge, after which they developed intensively and left their mark on science. The law under discussion is often also called the law of measures. A measure is the interval of quantitative changes in which a given quality is preserved. For example, the temperature measure of water as a liquid is the interval from 0 º up to 100 º C (at normal pressure). When quantity goes beyond the limit of measure, one quality disappears and another appears. Excessive quality ceases to be itself, it turns into something else, often the opposite. For example, excessive attentiveness becomes importunity, excessive kindness becomes connivance, excessive pride becomes arrogance, etc. A measure has lower and upper limits; deviation from the measure, both upward and downward, equally destroys this quality. The measure serves as a boundary separating one quality from another.
2.3 Law of dialectical synthesis (negation of negation)
The law of negation of negation is logically connected with other laws of dialectics, but has its own content. If the law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the struggle of the new with the old, acts as an internal source of development, and the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative expresses the nature of development and forms of transition from the old qualitative state to the new, then the law of negation of negation determines in which direction development occurs, in what form and how the connection and historical continuity in development is carried out.
Denial is a moment of connection and development. The endless emergence of some qualitative states and the disappearance of others act as the negation of the old by the new, as the resolution of some contradictions and the emergence of others.
Dialectical negation is an objective, natural phenomenon, independent of the subjective desires of people. It arises from the inconsistency of objects and processes, from the presence in them of sides and tendencies that deny each other. It cannot be understood as
simple destruction. It represents a negation that presupposes the possibility of further development, the possibility of a new negation. If, for example, you turn wheat grains into flour by grinding them, then this will be a simple destruction of these grains. But such a denial excludes the possibility of further development of the plant, because ground grains do not have the ability to grow. Consequently, in this case there will be not a dialectical negation of the grains, but their destruction. In dialectics, to deny does not mean simply saying no, or declaring a thing non-existent, or destroying it in any way. Real dialectical negation is the cause of development: it creates the conditions for a new negation.
The meaning of dialectical negation lies precisely in the fact that it acts not only as a moment of overcoming the old, but also as a moment of connection between the new and everything positive that was created under the old forms of development, as a moment of continuity in development.
Historical continuity between the old and the new also takes place in the development of phenomena, processes and social life. Thus, the transition from one mode of production to another is the negation of the old by the new. But at the same time, in the new method of production, the productive forces created at the previous stages of development of human society are preserved. Thanks to this fact, a connection is formed in human history, the history of mankind is formed, which becomes the more the history of mankind, the more the productive forces of people, and consequently their social relations, have grown.
The development process does not stop at the first negation. This negation is negated by the new; the new, developing and becoming old, is negated by the next new. Since dialectical development appears as a series of negations, questions arise: what is the connection between the first and subsequent negations; what new does the second negation provide compared to the first; what pattern operates in the general chain of alternating negations? But the negation of the negation is not a simple alternation of transitions of opposites into each other, a simple replacement of one unity of opposites with another. It means their replacement, which involves repeating the stages passed on a new, higher basis of development, which includes a return to some extent. This is one of the characteristic manifestations of the law of negation of negation. Therefore, synthesis as a result of negation cannot be considered as something frozen and completed. Each new turn of the spiral acts as a dialectical cycle, and the alternation of turns characterizes the continuity of development, ascension from the lowest to the highest.
Recognizing an upward trend in development does not mean that all changes in the world go only in this direction. The processes of ascent are opposed by the processes of descent; progressive tendencies are inseparable from regressive ones.
Used Books
1. M.I. Martynov, L.G. Kravchenko Philosophy: intensive training course 2nd ed. M.: TetraSystems, 2008
G.I. Tsaregorodtsev, G.Kh. Shingarov, N.I. Gubanov Philosophy. Textbook. M.: VEST, 2003
Knyazeva E.N., Kurdyumov S.A. Synergetics: the beginnings of nonlinear thinking: Social sciences and modernity. - 1993
Kokhanovsky V.P. Does modern science need dialectics: Scientific thought of the Caucasus. - 2004
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1. Dialectics- recognized in modern philosophy theory of development of all things and based on it philosophical method.
Dialectics theoretically reflects the development of matter, spirit, consciousness, cognition and other aspects of reality through:
Laws of dialectics;
Principles.
The main problem of dialectics is what is development?
Development- general property and main feature of matter: change in material and ideal objects, and not a simple (mechanical) change, but a change as self-development, the result of which is a transition to a higher level of the organization.
Development is the highest form of movement. In turn, movement is the basis of development.
Movement is also an internal property of matter and a unique phenomenon of the surrounding reality, since movement is characterized by integrity, continuity and at the same time the presence of contradictions (a moving body does not occupy a permanent place in space - at each moment of movement the body is in a certain place and at the same time is no longer in it). Movement is also a way of communication in the material world.
2. Among the ways of understanding the dialectics of development - laws, categories, principles - the fundamental ones are laws of dialectics.
Law- these are objective (independent of human will), general, stable, necessary, repeating connections between entities and within entities.
The laws of dialectics differ from the laws of other sciences (physics, mathematics, etc.) its universality and universality, because they:
Cover all spheres of the surrounding reality;
They reveal the deep foundations of movement and development - their source, the mechanism of transition from old to new, the connections between old and new.
Stand out three basic laws of dialectics:
unity and struggle of opposites;
Transition from quantity to quality;
Negations of negations.
3. Law of Unity And struggle of opposites is that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being united in nature, are in struggle and contradict each other (example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer, youth and old age and etc.).
The unity and struggle of opposite principles is the internal source of movement and development of all things.
Hegel, considered the founder of dialectics, had a special view of unity and the struggle of opposites. He came up with two concepts: "identity" And "difference" and the mechanism of their interaction leading to movement is shown.
According to Hegel, every object and phenomenon has two main qualities - identity and difference. Identity means that an object (phenomenon, idea) is equal to itself, that is, a given object is precisely this given object. At the same time, in an object that is identical to itself, there is something that strives to go beyond the scope of the object, to violate its identity.
Contradiction, the struggle between the same identity and difference leads, according to Hegel, to change (self-change) of the object - movement. Examples: there is an idea that is identical to itself, at the same time, it itself contains a difference - something that strives to go beyond the idea; the result of their struggle is a change in the idea (for example, the transformation of an idea into matter from the point of view of idealism). Or: there is a society that is identical to itself, but there are forces in it that are cramped within the framework of this society; their struggle leads to a change in the quality of society, its renewal.
You can also highlight different types of struggle:
A struggle that brings benefits to both sides (for example, constant competition, where each side “catches up” with the other and moves to a higher qualitative level of development);
A struggle where one side regularly gains the upper hand over the other, but the defeated side persists and is an “irritant” for the winning side, due to which the winning side moves to a higher level of development;
An antagonistic struggle, where one side can only survive by completely destroying the other.
In addition to fighting, other types of interaction are possible:
Assistance (when both parties provide reciprocal assistance to each other without fighting);
Solidarity, alliance (the parties do not provide direct assistance to each other, but have common interests and act in the same direction);
Neutrality (the parties have different interests, do not promote each other, but do not fight each other);
Mutualism is a complete relationship (to accomplish any task, the parties must act only together and cannot act autonomously from each other).
4. The second law of dialectics is the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
Quality- a certainty identical to being, a stable system of certain characteristics and connections of an object.
Quantity- countable parameters of an object or phenomenon (number, size, volume, weight, size, etc.).
Measure- unity of quantity and quality.
With certain quantitative changes, quality necessarily changes.
However, quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a moment when a change in quality leads to a change in measure (that is, the coordinate system in which the quality previously changed under the influence of quantitative changes) - to a radical transformation of the essence of the subject. Such moments are called “nodes”, and the transition itself to another state is understood in philosophy as "leap".
We can give some examples of the operation of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
If you heat water successively by one degree Celsius, that is, change quantitative parameters - temperature, then the water will change its quality - it will become hot (due to the disruption of the usual structural bonds, the atoms will begin to move several times faster). When the temperature reaches 100 degrees, a radical change in the quality of water will occur - it will turn into steam (that is, the previous “coordinate system” of the heating process will collapse - water and the previous system of connections). A temperature of 100 degrees in this case will be a node, and the transition of water into steam (the transition of one quality measure to another) will be a jump. The same can be said about cooling water and turning it into ice at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius.
If a body is given greater and greater speed - 100, 200, 1000, 2000, 7000, 7190 meters per second - it will accelerate its movement (change quality within a stable measure). When the body is given a speed of 7191 m/s (the “nodal” speed), the body will overcome gravity and become an artificial satellite of the Earth (the very coordinate system of the quality change will change, a jump will occur).
In nature, it is not always possible to determine the nodal moment. The transition of quantity into a fundamentally new quality may happen:
Sharply, instantly;
Imperceptibly, evolutionarily.
Examples of the first case were discussed above.
As for the second option (an imperceptible, evolutionary fundamental change in quality - measure), a good illustration of this process was the ancient Greek aporia “Heap” and “Bald”: “When you add which grain, the totality of grains will turn into a heap?”; “If a hair falls out of your head, then from what moment, with the loss of which specific hair, can a person be considered bald?” That is, the edge of a specific change in quality may be elusive.
5. The law of negation of negation lies in the fact that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from new into old and is negated by more and more new things.
Examples:
Change of socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process);
"relay of generations";
Change of tastes in culture, music;
Evolution of the family (children are partly parents, but at a new stage);
Daily death of old blood cells, emergence of new ones.
The denial of old forms by new ones is the reason and mechanism of progressive development. However the question of the direction of development - controversial in philosophy. The following stand out: main points of view:
Development is only a progressive process, a transition from lower forms to higher ones, that is, ascending development;
Development can be either upward or downward;
Development is chaotic and has no direction. Practice shows that of the three points of view, the most
The second one is close to true: development can be either upward or downward, although the general trend is still upward.
Examples:
The human body develops and grows stronger (ascending development), but then, developing further, it weakens and becomes decrepit (descending development);
The historical process follows an upward direction of development, but with recessions - the heyday of the Roman Empire was replaced by its fall, but then a new upward development of Europe followed (Renaissance, modern times, etc.).
Thus, development quicker coming not in a linear manner (in a straight line), but in a spiral Moreover, each turn of the spiral repeats the previous ones, but at a new, higher level. 6. Basic principles of dialectics are:
The principle of universal connection;
Systematic principle;
The principle of causality;
The principle of historicism.
Universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness, interdependence of all its components - objects, phenomena, processes.
Connections can be:
External and internal;
Direct and indirect;
Genetic and functional;
Spatial and temporal;
Random and natural.
The most common type of communication is external and internal. Example: internal connections of the human body as a biological system, external connections of a person as elements of a social system.
Systematicity means that numerous connections in the surrounding world exist not chaotically, but in an orderly manner. These connections form an integral system in which they are arranged in a hierarchical order. Thanks to this, the surrounding world has internal expediency.
Causality- the presence of such connections where one gives rise to another. Objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world are caused by something, that is, they have either an external or internal cause. The cause, in turn, gives rise to the effect, and the relationships in general are called cause-and-effect.
Historicism implies two aspects of the surrounding world:
Eternity, indestructibility of history, the world;
Its existence and development in time, which lasts forever.
Essence and phenomenon;
Cause and investigation;
Individual, special, universal;
Possibility and reality;
Necessity and chance.
1) The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
This law is the “core” of dialectics, because determines the source of development and answers the question of why it occurs.
Contradiction is the interaction of opposing sides, properties and tendencies within a particular system or between systems. There is a dialectical contradiction only where there is unity and development (*the left and right sides of the house, black and white are opposites that do not demonstrate the effect of this law).
In the development of contradictions, several stages can be distinguished: identity - difference - opposition - contradiction - resolution of the contradiction - new identity - ...
The concept of “identity” means the sameness of an object or phenomenon in relation to itself or to another object or phenomenon. Reality is constantly changing, so identity is always relative, it gives rise to differences.
Difference is the first stage in the development of contradiction, it is the relationship of non-identity of an object to itself or another object. Differences can be external (between individual objects or phenomena) and internal (this thing turns into something else, remaining itself at this stage), insignificant (not affecting the deep, defining connections) and significant.
The next stage in the development of contradiction - opposition - is the limiting case of significant differences. Opposition presupposes the presence of two interdependent sides, which in relation to each other act as “their other” (Hegel). Opposites form a single whole; the concept of “unity of opposites” denotes the stability of an object. And at the same time, they are mutually exclusive (this is their “struggle”). Therefore, the presence of opposites makes their collision inevitable, i.e. transition to the next stage - contradiction.
To become a source of development, a contradiction must be resolved.
Basic forms of resolving contradictions:
Compromise of the fighting parties, their adaptation or mutual transition to each other at a higher level,
The victory of one and the destruction of the other,
The death of both opposites and a radical transformation of the system.
[*Example 1: the emergence of a new species in organic nature. The original species is adapted to the environment. There is harmony (identity) between the species and the environment, as well as the identity of a given species with itself, i.e. its stability. A change in the environment leads to the appearance of a discrepancy between the species and the environment (external differences), this forces the living system (species) to change its quality (the discrepancy between its new state and the old one, i.e. internal difference). As new qualities grow, they come into conflict with the original ones. On the other hand, the old qualities, finding themselves unadapted to the changed environment, come into conflict with this environment. The action of natural selection eliminates a non-viable form, and a new species continues to exist, formed as a result of increasing internal changes. The same example demonstrates the contradiction between variability and heredity in living nature: a living organism is impossible without the unity of these opposing tendencies, and in the course of evolution, the resolution of this contradiction is consistent with the needs of the development of the entire system as a whole.
Example 2: social conflicts, their occurrence, development and resolution].
The law of unity and struggle of opposites in medical knowledge is manifested in the following:
At the level of interaction between the organism and the environment, this is a state of relative equilibrium of the organism with the environment, the stability of the state of the organism in a constantly changing external environment, which is expressed in one of the most important concepts of theoretical medicine - “homeostasis” (the state of equilibrium of the organism, which serves as a condition for the normal mode of life, what clinically corresponds to the state of health);
At the level of the organism, it manifests itself in such phenomena as assimilation (the absorption by the body of substances external to it) and dissimilation (the breakdown of substances in the body), which together constitute metabolism, which is the main property of the life activity of the organism; norm and anomaly, integrity and discreteness, etc.;
At the level of psychophysiology, these are all phenomena associated with socio-biological disharmony.
2) The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
This law determines the mechanism of development and answers the question of how it occurs.
Quality is the totality of all properties of an object in their entirety, determining its functional purpose. A property is a way of manifesting a certain aspect of an object in relation to other objects with which it interacts. Quality indicates the unity of the properties of an object and characterizes its relative stability. Quality makes it possible to distinguish one object from another.
Quantity is a collection of homogeneous elements that in their integrity constitute a certain quality. Quantity expresses the external relationships of objects, their parts, properties or connections and manifests itself as number (if they can be counted), magnitude (if they can be measured), volume, degree of manifestation of properties.
Quality and quantity form an inseparable unity. This unity is expressed in the concept of “measure”. A measure is the boundaries within which, during quantitative changes, an object or phenomenon retains its quality.
[The idea of measure has interested philosophers since ancient times (Thales: “Measure is the best”; Democritus: “If you go beyond the measure, then the most pleasant will become the most unpleasant”; Plato: “Measure is the mean between excess and deficiency”; Augustine: “Measure is quantitative the boundary of a given quality is that which it cannot be more or less than.”]
The development process is a process of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
There is a gradual accumulation of quantitative changes in the system (this could be: - a change in the number of elements in the system,
Changing the speed of movement,
Change in the amount of information,
Change in the degree of manifestation of something. quality, etc.)
Within the boundaries of a certain measure, the qualitative characteristics of the object are preserved. However, at a certain level of change, quantitative changes cross the boundary of measure - this leads to the emergence of a new quality. The process of moving from one measure to another, transforming an old quality into a new one is called a “leap”.
(Example: within the range of 0 - 1000, water retains its qualitative certainty; when heated, some properties change - temperature and speed of movement of molecules, but water remains water; at 1000, the quantitative indicators of these properties cross the boundary of the measure and a jump occurs - water passes from liquid to vapor state.)
There are different types of jumps:
Gradual - long in time, its boundaries are not clearly expressed (*the emergence of life on earth, *the origin of man, the formation of new species of plants and animals, etc.);
Instantaneous - characterized by fast pace, high intensity and clearly defined boundaries.
The development process is a unity of discontinuous and continuous. Continuous changes are gradual quantitative changes and associated changes in individual properties within a given quality. Continuity in development expresses the relative stability of the world. Discontinuity means a transition to a new quality and expresses the variability of the world.
The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones manifests itself when studying the relationship between health and illness. The philosophical concept of “measure” corresponds to the medical “norm” (in the state of health, in the selection of medications, etc.).
3) Law of negation of negation.
This law determines the direction of development, expresses continuity in development, and determines the connection between the new and the old.
In the metaphysical approach, negation is understood as the simple destruction of the old by the new. In dialectics, negation is considered as a necessary moment of development, a condition for a qualitative change in an object.
The negation of a negation, or double negation, represents a sublation - i.e. preserving some elements or properties of the old object as part of the new one.
The law of negation of negation was first formulated by Hegel, who presented it in the form of a triad: thesis - antithesis - synthesis. Antithesis denies the thesis, and synthesis combines the thesis and antithesis at a higher level. Synthesis is the beginning of a new triad, i.e. becomes a new thesis.
(Hegel’s example: the bud disappears when the flower blooms, i.e. the flower denies the bud; at the moment the fruit appears, the flower is denied. These forms of development replace each other as incompatible. At the same time, they are necessary for each other’s existence, they are elements of the organic unity, their equal necessity constitutes the life of the whole.)
The appearance of the new simultaneously denies the old and affirms it through removal, i.e. preservation of the positive, necessary for the existence of the new. This is continuity in development. The world in the present is the result of the past and the basis for the future. The social form of continuity, the form of transmission of human experience is called tradition.
The law of negation of negation in medical knowledge manifests itself in several aspects:
Allows you to reveal trends in the development of illness and recovery, to monitor the relationship and continuity of the various stages of these processes. In this aspect, the philosophical triad “thesis – antithesis – synthesis” corresponds to the concepts “health – disease – recovery” or “natural human microflora – antibiotic exposure – altered microflora”;
Associated with the inherited conditionality of pathological processes and diseases;
Associated with the process of changing scientific theories.
Conclusion
Dialectics is an open, integral organic system, a set of stable connections and relationships between its elements that forms the structure of dialectics. It is internally subordinated, has its own hierarchy and is divided into structural components, which, depending on their epistemological and ideological functions, represent principles, laws and categories.
Principles are general and universal, fundamental and meaning-forming ideas and attitudes that determine the role and participation, meaning and direction of all other forms in the process of cognition. They have the status of philosophical axioms, i.e. set the initial conditions of knowledge, determine its nature, limits and theoretical potential.
In any development process, the laws of dialectics appear in organic unity, but at the same time, each of them reveals a certain side in development.
The process of development of objects and phenomena is multidimensional. The basic laws of dialectics are necessarily realized in it, but do not exhaust all the essential characteristics of development. Therefore, in addition to the three basic laws, dialectics also includes non-basic laws, the content of which is expressed through the relationship of the so-called pair categories.
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