Crimean War (Eastern War), war between Russia and the coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East. By the middle of the 19th century. Great Britain and France ousted Russia from the Middle Eastern markets and brought Turkey under their influence. Emperor Nicholas I unsuccessfully tried to negotiate with Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore lost positions by direct pressure on Turkey. Great Britain and France contributed to the escalation of the conflict, hoping to weaken Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus and other territories from it. The pretext for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in 1852 over the ownership of “holy places” in Palestine. In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Ambassador Extraordinary A.S. Menshikov to Constantinople, who issued an ultimatum demanding that the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan be placed under the special protection of the Russian Tsar. The tsarist government counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible.
However, the English Prime Minister J. Palmerston, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia. In May 1853, the Turkish government rejected the Russian ultimatum, and Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey. With the consent of Turkey, an Anglo-French squadron entered the Dardanelles. On June 21 (July 3), Russian troops entered the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish Sultan. Supported by Great Britain and France, the Sultan on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the principalities, and on October 4 (16), 1853 he declared war on Russia.
Against 82 thousand. Türkiye deployed almost 150 thousand troops to the army of General M.D. Gorchakov on the Danube. Omer Pasha's army, but attacks by Turkish troops at Cetati, Zhurzhi and Calarash were repulsed. Russian artillery destroyed the Turkish Danube flotilla. In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army of Abdi Pasha (about 100 thousand people) was opposed by the weak garrisons of Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Alexandropol and Erivan (about 5 thousand), since the main forces of the Russian troops were busy fighting the highlanders (see Caucasian War of 1817 -64). An infantry division (16 thousand) was hastily transferred from Crimea by sea and 10 thousand were formed. Armenian-Georgian militia, which made it possible to concentrate 30 thousand troops under the command of General V. O. Bebutov. The main forces of the Turks (about 40 thousand) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardahan detachment (18 thousand) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was repulsed, and on November 14 (26) they were defeated near Akhaltsikhe by 7 thousand. detachment of General I.M. Andronnikov. On November 19 (December 1), Bebutov’s troops (10 thousand) defeated the main Turkish forces (36 thousand) at Bashkadyklar.
The Russian Black Sea Fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports. On November 18 (30), a squadron under the command of Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish Black Sea Fleet in the Battle of Sinop 1853. Turkey's defeats accelerated the entry of Great Britain and France into the war. On December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea. On February 9 (21), Russia declared war on Great Britain and France. On March 11 (23), 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Brailov, Galati and Izmail and concentrated in Northern Dobruja. On April 10 (22), the Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa. In June - July, Anglo-French troops landed in Varna, and the superior forces of the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet (34 battleships and 55 frigates, including most steam ships) blocked the Russian fleet (14 linear sailing ships, 6 frigates and 6 steamships). frigates) in Sevastopol. Russia was significantly inferior to Western European countries in the field of military equipment. Its fleet consisted mainly of outdated sailing ships, its army was armed mainly with short-range flintlock shotguns, while the Allies were armed with rifles. The threat of intervention in the war on the side of the anti-Russian coalition of Austria, Prussia and Sweden forced Russia to keep the main army forces on its western borders.
On the Danube, Russian troops besieged the fortress of Silistria on May 5 (17), but due to the hostile position of Austria, on June 9 (21), the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal I. F. Paskevich, gave the order to withdraw beyond the Danube. At the beginning of July, 3 French divisions moved from Varna to cover the Russian troops, but a cholera epidemic forced them to return. By September 1854, Russian troops retreated beyond the river. Prut and the principalities were occupied by Austrian troops.
In the Baltic Sea, the Anglo-French squadrons of Vice Admiral Charles Napier and Vice Admiral A.F. Parseval-Deschene (11 screw and 15 sailing battleships, 32 steam frigates and 7 sailing frigates) blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing battleships ships, 9 steam frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg. Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, which were used for the first time in combat, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. July 26 (August 7) 1854 11 thousand. The Anglo-French landing force landed on the Åland Islands and besieged Bomarsund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganga, Gamlakarleby and Abo) ended in failure. In the fall of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea. On the White Sea, English ships bombarded Kola and the Solovetsky Monastery in 1854, but the attempt to attack Arkhangelsk failed. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka under the command of Major General V. S. Zavoiko on August 18-24 (August 30 - September 5), 1854, repelled the attack of the Anglo-French squadron, defeating the landing party (see Peter and Paul Defense of 1854).
In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army under the command of Mustafa Zarif Pasha was strengthened to 120 thousand people and in May 1854 went on the offensive against 40 thousand. Bebutov's Russian corps. June 4(16) 34 thousand. The Batumi Turkish detachment was defeated in a battle on the river. Choroh 13-thousand Andronnikov’s detachment, and on July 17 (29), Russian troops (3.5 thousand) defeated 20 thousand in an oncoming battle at the Chingil Pass. The Bayazet detachment occupied Bayazet on July 19 (31). Bebutov's main forces (18 thousand) were delayed by the invasion of Eastern Georgia by Shamil's troops and went on the offensive only in July. At the same time, the main Turkish forces (60 thousand) moved towards Alexandropol. On July 24 (August 5) at Kuryuk-Dara, the Turkish army was defeated and ceased to exist as an active fighting force.
On September 2 (14), 1854, the allied fleet began landing near Evpatoria with 62 thousand. Anglo-French-Turkish army. Russian troops in Crimea under the command of Menshikov (33.6 thousand) were defeated on the river. Alma and retreated to Sevastopol, and then to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol to the mercy of fate. At the same time, Marshal A. Saint-Arnaud and General F. J. Raglan, who commanded the allied army, did not dare to attack the northern side of Sevastopol, undertook a roundabout maneuver and, having missed Menshikov’s troops on the march, approached Sevastopol from the south with 18 thousand sailors and soldiers at the head with Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov, they took up defensive positions, launching the construction of fortifications with the help of the population. To protect the approaches from the sea at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, several old ships were sunk, the crews and guns from which were sent to fortifications. The 349-day heroic defense of Sevastopol 1854-55 began.
The first bombardment of Sevastopol on October 5 (17) did not reach its target, which forced Raglan and General F. Canrobert (who replaced the deceased Saint-Arnaud) to postpone the assault. Menshikov, having received reinforcements, tried to attack the enemy from the rear in October, but in the Battle of Balaklava 1854 success was not developed, and in the Battle of Inkerman 1854 Russian troops were defeated.
In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna through the mediation of Austria. Great Britain and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban on Russia keeping a navy in the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (i.e., deprivation of Russia access to its mouths). On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with Great Britain and France. On December 28 (January 9, 1855) a conference of the ambassadors of Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not produce results and were interrupted in April 1855.
On January 14 (26), 1855, Sardinia entered the war, sending 15 thousand people to the Crimea. frame. 35 thousand concentrated in Yevpatoria. Turkish corps of Omer Pasha. 5(17) February 19 th. the detachment of General S.A. Khrulev tried to take control of Yevpatoria, but the assault was repulsed. Menshikov was replaced by General M.D. Gorchakov.
On March 28 (April 9), the 2nd bombardment of Sevastopol began, revealing the overwhelming superiority of the Allies in the amount of ammunition. But the heroic resistance of the defenders of Sevastopol forced the allies to postpone the assault again. Canrobert was replaced by General J. Pelissier, a supporter of active action. 12(24) May 16 thousand. The French corps landed in Kerch. Allied ships devastated the Azov coast, but their landings near Arabat, Genichesk and Taganrog were repulsed. In May, the Allies carried out the 3rd bombardment of Sevastopol and drove Russian troops out of the advanced fortifications. On June 6 (18), after the 4th bombardment, an assault was launched on the bastions of the Ship Side, but it was repulsed. On August 4 (16), Russian troops attacked the Allied positions on the river. Black, but were thrown back. Pelissier and General Simpson (who replaced the deceased Raglan) carried out the 5th bombardment, and on August 27 (September 8), after the 6th bombardment, they began a general assault on Sevastopol. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, Russian troops left the city on the evening of August 27 and crossed to the North Side. The remaining ships were sunk.
In the Baltic in 1855, the Anglo-French fleet under the command of Admiral R. Dundas and C. Penaud limited itself to blockading the coast and bombarding Sveaborg and other cities. On the Black Sea, the Allies landed troops in Novorossiysk and occupied Kinburn. On the Pacific coast, the Allied landing at De-Kastri Bay was repelled.
In Transcaucasia, the corps of General N. N. Muravyov (about 40 thousand) in the spring of 1855 pushed back the Bayazet and Ardagan Turkish detachments to Erzurum and blocked 33 thousand. garrison of Kars. To save Kars, the Allies landed 45 thousand troops in Sukhum. Omer Pasha's corps, but he met October 23-25 (November 4-6) on the river. Inguri stubborn resistance of the Russian detachment of General I.K. Bagration-Mukhransky, who then stopped the enemy on the river. Tskhenistskali. A partisan movement of the Georgian and Abkhaz population unfolded in the Turkish rear. On November 16 (28), the garrison of Kars capitulated. Omer Pasha went to Sukhum, from where he was evacuated to Turkey in February 1856.
At the end of 1855, hostilities virtually ceased, and negotiations resumed in Vienna. Russia did not have trained reserves, there was a shortage of weapons, ammunition, food, and financial resources, the anti-serfdom peasant movement was growing, intensified due to the massive recruitment into the militia, and the liberal-noble opposition intensified. The position of Sweden, Prussia and especially Austria, which threatened war, became increasingly hostile. In this situation, tsarism was forced to make concessions. On March 18 (30), the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was signed, according to which Russia agreed to neutralize the Black Sea with a ban on having a navy and bases there, ceded the southern part of Bessarabia to Turkey, pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands and recognized the protectorate of the great powers over Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia. The Crimean War was unjust and aggressive on both sides.
The Crimean War was an important stage in the development of military art. After it, all armies were re-equipped with rifled weapons and the sailing fleet was replaced by steam. During the war, the inconsistency of column tactics was revealed, and rifle chain tactics and elements of positional warfare were developed. The experience of the Crimean War was used in carrying out military reforms in the 1860-70s. in Russia and was widely used in wars of the 2nd half of the 19th century.
(material prepared on the basis of fundamental works
Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov,
V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov, and others...)
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The Eastern or Crimean direction (including the territory of the Balkans) was a priority in Russian foreign policy in the 18th-19th centuries. Russia's main rival in this region was Türkiye, or the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, the government of Catherine II managed to achieve significant success in this region, Alexander I was also lucky, but their successor Nicholas I had to face great difficulties, since European powers became interested in Russia’s successes in this region.
They feared that if the empire's successful eastern foreign policy continued, then Western Europe will lose complete control over the Black Sea straits. How the Crimean War of 1853–1856 began and ended, briefly below.
Assessment of the political situation in the region for the Russian Empire
Before the war of 1853−1856. The Empire's policy in the East was quite successful.
- With Russian support, Greece gains independence (1830).
- Russia receives the right to freely use the Black Sea straits.
- Russian diplomats are seeking autonomy for Serbia, and then a protectorate over the Danube principalities.
- After the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, Russia, which supported the Sultanate, seeks from Turkey a promise to close the Black Sea straits to any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in force until 1941).
The Crimean, or Eastern War, which broke out in the last years of the reign of Nicholas II, became one of the first conflicts between Russia and a coalition of European countries. The main reason for the war was the mutual desire of the opposing sides to strengthen themselves on the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea.
Basic information about the conflict
The Eastern War is a complex military conflict, in which all the leading powers of Western Europe were involved. Statistics are therefore very important. The prerequisites, causes and general reason for the conflict require detailed consideration, the progress of the conflict is rapid, while the fighting took place both on land and at sea.
Statistical data
| Participants in the conflict | Numerical ratio | Geography of combat operations (map) | ||
| Russian empire | Ottoman Empire | Forces of the Russian Empire (army and navy) - 755 thousand people (+Bulgarian Legion, +Greek Legion) | Coalition forces (army and navy) - 700 thousand people | The fighting took place:
Military operations also took place in the following waters:
|
| Greece (until 1854) | French Empire | |||
| Megrelian Principality | British Empire | |||
| Abkhazian principality (part of the Abkhazians waged a guerrilla war against the coalition troops) | Sardinian Kingdom | |||
| Austro-Hungarian Empire | ||||
| North Caucasian Imamate (until 1855) | ||||
| Abkhazian Principality | ||||
| Circassian Principality | ||||
| Some countries occupying leading positions in Western Europe decided to refrain from direct participation in the conflict. But at the same time they took a position of armed neutrality against the Russian Empire. | ||||
Note! Historians and researchers of the military conflict noted that from a logistical point of view, the Russian army was significantly inferior to the coalition forces. The command staff was also inferior in training to the command staff of the combined enemy forces. Generals and officials Nicholas I did not want to accept this fact and was not even fully aware of it.
Prerequisites, reasons and reason for the start of the war
| Prerequisites for war | Causes of the war | Reason for war |
1.Weakening of the Ottoman Empire:
|
1. Britain needed to bring the weak Ottoman Empire under its control and through it control the operation of the straits. | The reason was the conflict around the Church of the Nativity of Christ located in Bethlehem, in which Orthodox monks conducted services. In fact, they were given the right to speak on behalf of Christians all over the world, which, naturally, Catholics did not like. The Vatican and French Emperor Napoleon III demanded that the keys be handed over to Catholic monks. The Sultan agreed, which infuriated Nicholas I. This event marked the beginning of an open military conflict. |
| 2. Strengthening the positions of Britain and France in the Black and Mediterranean Seas after the introduction of the provisions of the London Convention on the Straits and after the signing of trade agreements by London and Istanbul, which almost completely subordinated the economy of the Ottoman Empire to Britain. | 2. France wanted to distract citizens from internal problems and redirect their attention to the war. | |
| 3. Strengthening the position of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus and, in connection with this, complicating relations with Britain, which has always sought to strengthen its influence in the Middle East. | 3. Austria-Hungary did not want the situation in the Balkans to be undermined. This would lead to a crisis in the most multinational and multi-religious empire. | |
| 4. France, less interested in affairs in the Balkans than Austria, thirsted for revenge after the defeat in 1812-1814. This desire of France was not taken into account by Nikolai Pavlovich, who believed that the country would not go to war because of the internal crisis and revolutions. | 4. Russia wanted further strengthening in the Balkans and in the Black and Mediterranean seas. | |
| 5. Austria did not want Russia to strengthen its position in the Balkans and, without entering into an open conflict, continuing to work together in the Holy Alliance, in every possible way prevented the formation of new, independent states in the region. | ||
| Each of the European states, including Russia, had its own reasons for unleashing and participating in the conflict. Everyone pursued their own specific goals and geopolitical interests. For European countries, the complete weakening of Russia was important, but this was only possible if it fought against several opponents at once (for some reason, European politicians did not take into account Russia’s experience in waging similar wars). | ||
Note! To weaken Russia, the European powers, even before the start of the war, developed the so-called Palmerston Plan (Palmerston was the leader of British diplomacy) and provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia:
Combat actions and reasons for defeat
Crimean War (table): date, events, outcome
| Date (chronology) | Event/result (summary of events that unfolded in different territories and waters) |
| September 1853 | Severance of diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire. Entry of Russian troops into the Danube principalities; an attempt to reach an agreement with Turkey (the so-called Vienna Note). |
| October 1853 | The Sultan's introduction of amendments to the Vienna Note (under pressure from England), Emperor Nicholas I's refusal to sign it, Turkey's declaration of war on Russia. |
| I period (stage) of the war - October 1853 - April 1854: opponents - Russia and the Ottoman Empire, without the intervention of European powers; fronts - Black Sea, Danube and Caucasus. | |
| 18 (30).11.1853 | The defeat of the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay. This defeat of Turkey became the formal reason for England and France to enter the war. |
| Late 1853 - early 1854 | The landing of Russian troops on the right bank of the Danube, the beginning of the offensive on Silistria and Bucharest (the Danube campaign, in which Russia planned to win, as well as gain a foothold in the Balkans and indicate peace terms to the Sultanate). |
| February 1854 | Nicholas I's attempt would turn to Austria and Prussia for help, who rejected his proposals (as well as the proposal for an alliance with England) and concluded a secret treaty against Russia. The goal is to weaken its position in the Balkans. |
| March 1854 | England and France declare war on Russia (the war has ceased to be simply Russian-Turkish). |
| II period of the war - April 1854 - February 1856: opponents - Russia and the coalition; fronts - Crimean, Azov, Baltic, White Sea, Caucasian. | |
| 10. 04. 1854 | The bombing of Odessa by coalition troops begins. The goal is to force Russia to withdraw troops from the territory of the Danube principalities. Unsuccessfully, the Allies were forced to transfer troops to Crimea and expand the Crimean Company. |
| 09. 06. 1854 | The entry of Austria-Hungary into the war and, as a consequence, the lifting of the siege from Silistria and the withdrawal of troops to the left bank of the Danube. |
| June 1854 | The beginning of the siege of Sevastopol. |
| 19 (31). 07. 1854 | The capture by Russian troops of the Turkish fortress of Bayazet in the Caucasus. |
| July 1854 | Capture of Evpatoria by French troops. |
| July 1854 | The British and French land on the territory of modern Bulgaria (the city of Varna). The goal is to force the Russian Empire to withdraw troops from Bessarabia. Failure due to the outbreak of a cholera epidemic in the army. Transfer of troops to Crimea. |
| July 1854 | Battle of Kyuryuk-Dara. Anglo-Turkish troops tried to strengthen the position of the coalition in the Caucasus. Failure. Victory for Russia. |
| July 1854 | The landing of the Anglo-French troops on the Åland Islands, the military garrison of which was attacked. |
| August 1854 | Anglo-French landing on Kamchatka. The goal is to oust the Russian Empire from the Asian region. Siege of Petropavlovsk, Petropavlovsk defense. Failure of the coalition. |
| September 1854 | Battle on the river Alma. Defeat of Russia. Complete blockade of Sevastopol from land and sea. |
| September 1854 | An attempt to capture the Ochakov fortress (Sea of Azov) by an Anglo-French landing party. Unsuccessful. |
| October 1854 | Battle of Balaklava. An attempt to lift the siege from Sevastopol. |
| November 1854 | Battle of Inkerman. The goal is to change the situation on the Crimean Front and help Sevastopol. A severe defeat for Russia. |
| Late 1854 - early 1855 | Arctic Company of the British Empire. The goal is to weaken Russia’s position in the White and Barents Seas. An attempt to take Arkhangelsk and the Solovetsky Fortress. Failure. Successful actions of Russian naval commanders and defenders of the city and fortress. |
| February 1855 | Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria. |
| May 1855 | Capture of Kerch by Anglo-French troops. |
| May 1855 | Provocations of the Anglo-French fleet at Kronstadt. The goal is to lure the Russian fleet into the Baltic Sea. Unsuccessful. |
| July-November 1855 | Siege of the Kars fortress by Russian troops. The goal is to weaken Turkey's position in the Caucasus. The capture of the fortress, but after the surrender of Sevastopol. |
| August 1855 | Battle on the river Black. Another unsuccessful attempt by Russian troops to lift the siege from Sevastopol. |
| August 1855 | Bombing of Sveaborg by coalition troops. Unsuccessful. |
| September 1855 | Capture of Malakhov Kurgan by French troops. Surrender of Sevastopol (in fact, this event is the end of the war; it will end in just a month). |
| October 1855 | Capture of the Kinburn fortress by coalition troops, attempts to capture Nikolaev. Unsuccessful. |
Note! The most fierce battles of the Eastern War took place near Sevastopol. The city and strongholds around it were subjected to large-scale bombing 6 times:
The defeats of the Russian troops are not a sign that the commanders-in-chief, admirals and generals made mistakes. In the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by a talented commander - Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov, and the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoiko. These are the heroes of the Crimean War(an interesting message or report can be made about them and their exploits), but even their enthusiasm and strategic genius did not help in the war against superior enemy forces.
The Sevastopol disaster led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander II, foreseeing an extremely negative result of further hostilities, decided to begin diplomatic negotiations for peace.
Alexander II, like no one else, understood the reasons for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War):
- foreign policy isolation;
- a clear superiority of enemy forces on land and at sea;
- backwardness of the empire in military-technical and strategic terms;
- deep crisis in the economic sphere.
Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856
Treaty of Paris
The mission was headed by Prince A.F. Orlov, who was one of the outstanding diplomats of his time and believed that Russia could not lose in the diplomatic field. After long negotiations that took place in Paris, 18 (30).03. 1856 a peace treaty was signed between Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:
Foreign policy and domestic political consequences of defeat
The foreign policy and domestic political results of the war were also disastrous, although somewhat softened by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that
Significance of the Crimean War
But, despite the severity of the political situation inside and outside the country, after the defeat, it was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. and the defense of Sevastopol became the catalysts that led to the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.
Causes of the Crimean War.
During the reign of Nicholas the First, which was almost three decades, the Russian state achieved enormous power, both in economic and political development. Nicholas began to realize that it would be nice to continue to expand the territorial borders of the Russian Empire. As a real military man, Nicholas I could not be content with only what he had. This was the main reason for the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
The emperor's keen eye was directed to the East; in addition, his plans included strengthening his influence in the Balkans, the reason for this was the residence of Orthodox people there. However, the weakening of Turkey did not really suit states such as France and England. And they decide to declare war on Russia in 1854. And before that, in 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia.
The course of the Crimean War: the Crimean Peninsula and beyond.
The bulk of the fighting took place on the Crimean peninsula. But besides this, a bloody war was fought in Kamchatka, the Caucasus, and even on the coasts of the Baltic and Barents seas. At the very beginning of the war, the siege of Sevastopol was carried out by an airborne assault from England and France, during which famous military leaders died - Kornilov, Istomin,.
The siege lasted exactly a year, after which Sevastopol was irrevocably captured by Anglo-French troops. Along with the defeats in the Crimea, our troops won a victory in the Caucasus, destroying the Turkish squadron and capturing the Kars fortress. This large-scale war required numerous material and human resources from the Russian Empire, which were depleted by 1856.
On top of everything else, Nicholas I was afraid to fight with all of Europe, since Prussia was already on the verge of entering the war. The emperor had to give up his positions and sign a peace treaty. Some historians claim that after the defeat in the Crimean War, Nicholas committed suicide by taking poison, because the honor and dignity of his uniform came first for him.
Results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
After the signing of the peace agreement in Paris, Russia lost power over the Black Sea and protection over states such as Serbia, Wallachia and Moldova. Russia was prohibited from military construction in the Baltic. However, thanks to domestic diplomacy after the end of the Crimean War, Russia did not suffer large territorial losses.
In the middle of the 19th century, some disagreements arose between Russia on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire, as well as a number of European states on the other, regarding the division of spheres of influence in the Black Sea and the East. This conflict eventually led to an armed confrontation called the Crimean War, the reasons, course of military operations and results of which will be discussed briefly in this article.
Increasing anti-Russian sentiments in Western European countries
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was going through difficult times. It lost some of its territories and was on the verge of complete collapse. Taking advantage of this situation, Russia tried to increase its influence on some countries of the Balkan Peninsula that were under Ottoman control. Fearing that this could lead to the emergence of a number of independent states loyal to Russia, as well as the appearance of its ships in the Mediterranean Sea, England and France launched anti-Russian propaganda in their countries. Articles constantly appeared in newspapers that gave examples of the aggressive military policy of Tsarist Russia and its possibility of conquering Constantinople.
Causes of the Crimean War, briefly about the events of the early 50s of the 19th century
The reason for the start of the military confrontation was disagreements regarding the ownership of Christian churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church, supported by the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Catholics, under the patronage of France, on the other, have been fighting for a long time for ownership of the so-called keys to the temple. As a result, the Ottoman Empire supported France, giving it the right to own holy places. Nicholas I could not come to terms with this and in the spring of 1853 he sent A.S. Menshikov to Istanbul, who was supposed to negotiate the provision of churches under the management of the Orthodox Church. But as a result, he received a refusal from the Sultan, Russia moved to more decisive actions, as a result of which the Crimean War broke out. We will briefly consider its main stages below.
Start of hostilities
This conflict was one of the largest and most significant confrontations between the strongest states of that time. The main events of the Crimean War took place in the Transcaucasus, the Balkans, in the Black Sea basin and partly in the White and Barents Seas. It all started in June 1853, when several Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan did not like this, and after several months of negotiations, he declared war on Russia.
From this moment, a three-year military confrontation began, called the Crimean War, the course of which we will briefly try to understand. The entire period of this conflict can be divided into two stages:
- October 1853 - April 1854 - Russian-Turkish confrontation.
- April 1854 - February 1856 - entry into the war by England, France and the Sardinian Kingdom on the side of the Ottoman Empire.
Initially, everything turned out favorably for the Russian troops, who won victories both at sea and on land. The most significant event was the battle in Sinop Bay, as a result of which the Turks lost a significant part of their fleet.
Second stage of the war
In the early spring of 1854, England and France joined the Ottoman Empire and also declared war on Russia. Russian troops were inferior to their new opponents both in the training of soldiers and in the quality of weapons, as a result of which they were forced to retreat when coalition ships entered the waters of the Black Sea. The main task for the Anglo-French formations was the capture of Sevastopol, where the main forces of the Black Sea Fleet were concentrated.
To this end, in September 1854, Allied ground formations landed in the western part of Crimea, and a battle ensued near the Alma River, which ended in defeat for the Russian army. Anglo-French troops captured Sevastopol, and after 11 months of resistance the city was surrendered.
Despite defeats in naval battles and in the Crimea, the Russian army performed well in Transcaucasia, where it was opposed by Ottoman troops. Having successfully repulsed the attacks of the Turks, she launched a rapid offensive and managed to push the enemy back to the Kars fortress.
Treaty of Paris
After three years of fierce fighting, both sides of the conflict did not want to continue the military confrontation and agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. As a result, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were enshrined in the Paris Peace Treaty, which the parties signed on March 18, 1856. According to it, the Russian Empire was deprived of part of Bessarabia. But a much more serious damage was that the waters of the Black Sea were now considered neutral for the duration of the treaty. This meant that Russia and the Ottoman Empire were prohibited from having their own Black Sea fleets, as well as from building fortresses on its shores. This greatly undermined the country's defensive capabilities, as well as its economy.
Consequences of the Crimean War
As a result of the three-year confrontation between European states and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, the latter was among the losers, which undermined its influence on the world stage and led to economic isolation. This forced the country's government to launch a number of reforms aimed at modernizing the army, as well as improving the lives of the entire population of the country. Thanks to the military reform, conscription was abolished, and military service was introduced instead. New models of military equipment were adopted into service with the army. After the uprisings broke out, serfdom was abolished. Changes also affected the education system, finance and courts.
Despite all the efforts made by the Russian Empire, the Crimean War ended in defeat for it; after briefly analyzing the course of its actions, one can judge that the cause of all the failures was poor training of troops and outdated weapons. After its completion, many reforms were introduced aimed at improving the fundamentals of life for the country's citizens. Results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Although they were unsatisfactory for Russia, they still gave the tsar the opportunity to realize past mistakes and prevent similar things in the future.
The basis of the foreign policy of Nicholas I during the entire period of his reign was the solution of two issues - “European” and “Eastern”.
The European question developed under the influence of a series of bourgeois revolutions, which undermined the foundations of the rule of monarchical dynasties and thus threatened imperial power in Russia with the spread of dangerous ideas and trends.
The “Eastern Question,” despite the fact that this concept was introduced into diplomacy only in the thirties of the 19th century, had a long history, and the stages of its development consistently expanded the borders of the Russian Empire. The Crimean War, bloody and senseless in its results, under Nicholas I (1853 -1856) was one of the stages in resolving the “Eastern Question” in order to establish influence in the Black Sea.
Territorial acquisitions of Russia in the first half of the 19th century in the East
In the 19th century, Russia pursued an active program to annex neighboring territories. For these purposes, ideological and political work was carried out to develop influence on the Christian, Slavic and oppressed populations of other empires and states. This created precedents for the inclusion of new lands into the jurisdiction of the Russian Empire, either voluntarily or as a result of military operations. Several important territorial wars with Persia and the Ottoman Empire long before the Crimean Campaign were just part of the state's vast territorial ambitions.
Russia's eastern military operations and their results are presented in the table below.
Future heroes of the Crimean War (1853-1856) took part in some of these wars.
Russia made significant progress in resolving the “eastern question”, gaining control over the southern seas exclusively through diplomatic means until 1840. However, the next decade brought significant strategic losses in the Black Sea.
Wars of empires on the world stage
The history of the Crimean War (1853-1856) began in 1833, when Russia concluded the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty with Turkey, which strengthened its influence in the Middle East.
Such cooperation between Russia and Turkey caused discontent among European states, especially the main opinion leader in Europe, England. The British crown sought to maintain its influence on all seas, being the largest owner of the merchant and military fleet in the world and the largest supplier of industrial goods to the international market. Its bourgeoisie increased colonial expansion in nearby regions rich in natural resources and convenient for trade operations. Therefore, in 1841, as a result of the London Convention, Russia's independence in interactions with the Ottoman Empire was limited by introducing collective supervision over Turkey.
Russia thus lost its almost monopoly right to supply goods to Turkey, reducing its trade turnover in the Black Sea by 2.5 times.
For the weak economy of serf Russia, this was a serious blow. Lacking the ability to industrially compete in Europe, it traded food, resources and trade goods, and also supplemented the treasury with taxes from the population of the newly acquired territories and customs duties - a strong position in the Black Sea was important to it. At the same time as limiting Russia’s influence on the lands of the Ottoman Empire, bourgeois circles in European countries and even the United States were arming the Turkish army and navy, preparing them to conduct military operations in the event of a war with Russia. Nicholas I also decided to begin preparations for a future war.
The main strategic motives of Russia in the Crimean campaign
Russia's goals in the Crimean campaign were to consolidate influence in the Balkans with control of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and political pressure on Turkey, which was in a weak economic and military position. The long-term plans of Nicholas I included the division of the Ottoman Empire with the transfer to Russia of the territories of Moldavia, Wallachia, Serbia and Bulgaria, as well as Constantinople as the former capital of Orthodoxy.
The emperor's calculation was that England and France would not be able to unite in the Crimean War, since they were irreconcilable enemies. And therefore they will remain neutral or enter the war alone.
Nicholas I considered the alliance of Austria secured due to the service he rendered to the Austrian emperor in eliminating the revolution in Hungary (1848). But Prussia will not dare to conflict on its own.
The reason for tension in relations with the Ottoman Empire was the Christian shrines in Palestine, which the Sultan transferred not to the Orthodox, but to the Catholic Church.
A delegation was sent to Turkey with the following goals:
Putting pressure on the Sultan regarding the transfer of Christian shrines to the Orthodox Church;
Consolidating Russian influence in the territories of the Ottoman Empire where the Slavs live.
The delegation led by Menshikov did not achieve the goals assigned to it, the mission was a failure. The Turkish Sultan had already been previously prepared for negotiations with Russia by Western diplomats, who hinted at serious support from influential states in a possible war. Thus, the long-planned Crimean Campaign became a reality, beginning with the Russian occupation of the principalities on the Danube, which occurred in mid-summer 1853.
Main stages of the Crimean War
From July to November 1853, the Russian army was on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia with the aim of intimidating the Turkish Sultan and forcing him to make concessions. Finally, in October, Turkey decided to declare war, and Nicholas I launched hostilities with a special Manifesto. This war became a tragic page in the history of the Russian Empire. The heroes of the Crimean War will forever remain in people's memory as examples of courage, endurance and love for their Motherland.
The first stage of the war is considered to be the Russian-Turkish military operations that lasted until April 1854 on the Danube and the Caucasus, as well as naval operations in the Black Sea. They were carried out with varying degrees of success. The Danube War had a protracted positional nature, pointlessly exhausting the troops. In the Caucasus, the Russians conducted active military operations. As a result, this front turned out to be the most successful. An important event in the first period of the Crimean War was the naval operation of the Russian Black Sea Fleet in the waters of Sinop Bay.
The second stage of the Crimean Battle (April 1854 - February 1856) is the period of intervention of coalition military forces in Crimea, port areas in the Baltic, on the White Sea coast, and Kamchatka. The combined forces of the coalition, consisting of the British, Ottoman, French empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, carried out an attack on Odessa, Solovki, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, the Aland Islands in the Baltic and landed troops in the Crimea. The battles of this period included military operations in the Crimea on the Alma River, the siege of Sevastopol, the battles for Inkerman, Chernaya Rechka and Yevpatoria, as well as the Russian occupation of the Turkish fortress of Kars and a number of other fortifications in the Caucasus.
Thus, the countries of the united coalition began the Crimean War with a simultaneous attack on several strategically important Russian targets, which was supposed to sow panic in Nicholas I, as well as provoke the distribution of Russian army forces to conduct combat operations on several fronts. This radically changed the course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, putting Russia at an extreme disadvantage.
Battle in the waters of Sinop Bay
The Battle of Sinop was an example of the feat of Russian sailors. The Sinopskaya embankment in St. Petersburg was named in his honor, the Order of Nakhimov was established, and December 1 is annually celebrated as the Day of Remembrance of the Heroes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
The battle began with a raid by a squadron led by Vice Admiral of the Fleet P.S. Nakhimov on a Turkish group of ships waiting out a storm in Sinop Bay with the aim of attacking the Caucasus coast and occupying the Sukhum-Kale fortress.
Six Russian ships, lined up in two columns, took part in the naval battle, which improved their safety under enemy fire and provided the ability to quickly maneuver and change formations. The ships participating in the operation were equipped with 612 guns. Two more small frigates blocked the exit from the bay to prevent the escape of the remnants of the Turkish squadron. The battle lasted no more than eight hours. Nakhimov directly led the flagship Empress Maria, which destroyed two ships of the Turkish squadron. In the battle, his ship received a large amount of damage, but remained afloat.
Thus, for Nakhimov, the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began with a victorious naval battle, which was covered in detail in the European and Russian press, and also included in military historiography as an example of a brilliantly carried out operation that destroyed the superior enemy fleet of 17 ships and the entire coast guard.
The total losses of the Ottomans amounted to more than 3,000 killed, and many people were captured. Only the steamship of the united coalition "Taif" managed to avoid the battle, having passed at high speed past the frigates of Nakhimov's squadron standing at the entrance to the bay.
The Russian group of ships survived in full force, but human losses could not be avoided.
For the cool-blooded conduct of the military operation in Sinopskaya Bay, V.I. Istomin, commander of the ship Paris, was awarded the rank of rear admiral. Subsequently, the hero of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 Istomin V.I., who was responsible for the defense of Malakhov Kurgan, will die on the battlefield.
Siege of Sevastopol
During the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The defense of the Sevastopol fortress occupies a special place, becoming a symbol of the unparalleled courage and fortitude of the city’s defenders, as well as the most protracted and bloody operation of coalition troops against the Russian army on both sides.
In July 1854, the Russian fleet was blocked in Sevastopol by superior enemy forces (the number of ships of the united coalition exceeded the forces of the Russian fleet by more than three times). The main warships of the coalition were steam iron, that is, faster and more resistant to damage.
In order to delay enemy troops on the approaches to Sevastopol, the Russians launched a military operation on the Alma River, not far from Yevpatoria. However, the battle could not be won and had to retreat.
Next, Russian troops began preparing, with the involvement of the local population, fortifications for the defense of Sevastopol from enemy bombing from land and sea. The defense of Sevastopol was led at this stage by Admiral V.A. Kornilov.
The defense was carried out in accordance with all the rules of fortification and helped the defenders of Sevastopol hold out under the siege for almost a year. The garrison of the fortress was 35,000 people. On October 5, 1854, the first naval and land bombardment of the fortifications of Sevastopol by coalition troops took place. The city was bombarded with almost 1,500 guns simultaneously from the sea and from land.
The enemy intended to destroy the fortress and then take it by storm. A total of five bombings were carried out. As a result of the latter, the fortifications on the Malakhov Kurgan were completely destroyed and the enemy troops launched an assault.
After taking the Malakhov Kurgan heights, the forces of the united coalition installed guns on it and began shelling the defense of Sevastopol.
When the second bastion fell, the line of defenses of Sevastopol was seriously damaged, which forced the command to order a retreat, which was carried out quickly and in an organized manner.
During the siege of Sevastopol, more than 100 thousand Russians and more than 70 thousand coalition troops died.
The abandonment of Sevastopol did not lead to the loss of combat effectiveness of the Russian army. Having taken it to nearby heights, Commander Gorchakov established a defense, received reinforcements and was ready to continue the battle.
Heroes of Russia
Heroes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. became admirals, officers, engineers, sailors and soldiers. The huge list of those killed in a difficult confrontation with much superior enemy forces makes every defender of Sevastopol a hero. More than 100,000 Russian people, military and civilian, died in the defense of Sevastopol.
The courage and heroism of the participants in the defense of Sevastopol inscribed the name of each of them in golden letters in the history of Crimea and Russia.
Some heroes of the Crimean War are listed in the table below.
In terms of the scale of military operations carried out simultaneously in several places scattered across the vast territory of the Russian Empire, the Crimean War became one of the most strategically complex campaigns. Russia not only fought against a powerful coalition of united forces. The enemy was significantly superior in manpower and level of equipment - firearms, cannons, as well as a more powerful and fast fleet. The results of all sea and land battles showed the high skill of the officers and the unparalleled patriotism of the people, which compensated for the serious backwardness, incompetent leadership and poor supply of the army.
Results of the Crimean War
Exhausting fighting with a large number of losses (according to some historians - 250 thousand people on each side) forced the parties to the conflict to take steps to end the war. Representatives of all states of the united coalition and Russia took part in the negotiations. The conditions of this document were observed until 1871, then some of them were canceled.
Main articles of the treatise:
- the return of the Caucasian fortress of Kars and Anatolia by the Russian Empire to Turkey;
- banning the presence of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea;
- depriving Russia of the right of protectorate over Christians living on the territory of the Ottoman Empire;
- Russia's ban on the construction of fortresses on the Åland Islands;
- the return of the Crimean territories conquered from it by the coalition of the Russian Empire;
- return of the island of Urup by the coalition to the Russian Empire;
- prohibition of the Ottoman Empire to keep a fleet in the Black Sea;
- navigation on the Danube is declared free for everyone.
As a summary, it should be noted that the united coalition achieved its goals by permanently weakening Russia’s position in influencing political processes in the Balkans and control of trade operations in the Black Sea.
If we evaluate the Crimean War as a whole, then as a result of it Russia did not suffer territorial losses, and the parity of its positions in relation to the Ottoman Empire was respected. The defeat in the Crimean War is assessed by historians based on the large number of casualties and the ambitions that were invested as goals at the very beginning of the Crimean campaign by the Russian court.
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
Basically, historians list the reasons for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War, identified since the era of Nicholas I, which are considered to be the low economic level of the state, technical backwardness, poor logistics, corruption in army supplies and poor command.
In fact, the reasons are much more complex:
- Russia's unpreparedness for a war on several fronts, which was imposed by the coalition.
- Lack of allies.
- The superiority of the coalition fleet, which forced Russia to go into a state of siege in Sevastopol.
- Lack of weapons for high-quality and effective defense and counteracting the coalition landing on the peninsula.
- Ethnic and national contradictions in the rear of the army (Tatars supplied food to the coalition army, Polish officers deserted from the Russian army).
- The need to keep an army in Poland and Finland and wage wars with Shamil in the Caucasus and protect ports in the coalition threat zones (Caucasus, Danube, White, Baltic Sea and Kamchatka).
- Anti-Russian propaganda launched in the West with the aim of putting pressure on Russia (backwardness, serfdom, Russian cruelty).
- Poor technical equipment of the army, both with modern small arms and cannons, and with steam ships. A significant disadvantage of warships in comparison with the coalition fleet.
- Lack of railways for the rapid transport of armies, weapons and food to the combat zone.
- The arrogance of Nicholas I after a series of successful previous wars of the Russian army (at least six in total - both in Europe and in the East). The signing of the “Paris” treaty occurred after the death of Nicholas I. The new management team of the Russian Empire was not ready to continue the war due to economic and internal problems in the state, so it agreed to the humiliating conditions of the “Paris” treaty.
Consequences of the Crimean War
The defeat in the Crimean War was the largest since Austerlitz. It caused significant damage to the economy of the Russian Empire and forced the new autocrat Alexander II to look differently at the state structure.
Therefore, the consequences of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 were serious changes in the state:
1. Construction of railways began.
2. Military reform abolished the old regime conscription, replacing it with universal service, and restructured the administration of the army.
3. The development of military medicine began, the founder of which was the hero of the Crimean War, surgeon Pirogov.
4. The coalition countries organized a regime of isolation for Russia, which had to be overcome over the next decade.
5. Five years after the war, serfdom was abolished, giving a breakthrough to the development of industry and the intensification of agriculture.
6. The development of capitalist relations made it possible to transfer the production of weapons and ammunition into private hands, which stimulated the development of new technologies and price competition among suppliers.
7. The solution to the eastern question continued in the 70s of the 19th century with another Russian-Turkish war, which returned to Russia its lost positions in the Black Sea and territories in the Balkans. The fortifications in this battle were erected by the hero of the Crimean War, engineer Totleben.
The government of Alexander II drew good conclusions from the defeat in the Crimean War, carrying out economic and political changes in society and serious rearmament and reform of the armed forces. These changes anticipated the industrial growth that, in the second half of the 19th century, allowed Russia to regain its voice on the world stage, turning it into a full participant in European political life.
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