The following indicators are used in the production program:
1. Quantitative (volume) - indicators that have a numerical dimension and are expressed in physical or monetary units (pieces, units of weight, volume, length, area, rubles, dollars).
2. Quality indicators include grade, brand, share of products that meet international standards, etc.
3. Natural indicators - indicators characterizing the magnitude of phenomena in their natural form; measured in units reflecting the physical state of phenomena (kilograms, tons, centners, etc.)
4. Cost indicators - indicators characterizing economic phenomena in value (monetary) terms and determined using prices. These indicators include:
a) commercial products - is one of the indicators of production volume, characterizing the volume of products prepared for entry into the wholesale market or for intra-factory (in-house) consumption.
Product volume products is calculated as follows:
TP = VpTsd Ks (3)
where Вп - production output in physical terms;
CD - the contract price for this product per unit in rubles;
Kc is an indicator of product quality, which is found by the ratio of all products at prices depending on their quality to the sum of all products at the price of the first grade.
where P1 is the projected percentage of grade of finished products;
P2 is the specific gravity of products of reduced quality, determined by the formula: P2 = 100% - P1 (in percent);
0.95 - coefficient showing a discount from the price of the first grade, applied when planning
b) sold products characterize the cost of the volume of products that entered the market in a given period and are payable by consumers. It differs from the commodity balance of finished products in the warehouse. The volume of products sold according to the plan is determined by the formula:
RP = TP + He - Ok (5)
where He and Ok are the balances of unsold products at the beginning and end of the planning period, respectively.
At the end of the year, the balance of unsold products is taken into account only for finished products in the warehouse and shipped goods for which payment has not yet arrived.
c) gross output is the value of all products produced and work performed, including work in progress. Commercial output differs from gross output in that it does not include the remains of work in progress and on-farm turnover. It is expressed in wholesale prices in force in the reporting year. In terms of its composition, in many enterprises the gross output coincides with the commodity output.
Gross output is calculated in two ways:
1) as the difference between gross and intra-factory turnover:
VP = Vo - In (6)
where Vo is gross turnover;
Vn - intra-factory turnover.
2) as the sum of marketable products and the difference and balances of work in progress (tools, devices) at the beginning and end of the planning period:
VP = TP + (NZPk - NZPn) + (Ik - In) (7)
where NZPn and NZPk are the value of work in progress balances at the beginning and end of a given period, respectively;
In and Ik - the cost of special tools, semi-finished products, self-made devices at the beginning and end of a given period.
d) gross turnover - the total cost of all types of products produced during the reporting period by all workshops and departments of the enterprise. Includes the cost of finished products, semi-finished products of own production, work in progress and work of an industrial nature, regardless of their further use: on the side or within the enterprise itself; How does it differ from gross output, which does not include domestic turnover? The cost of semi-finished products transferred for subsequent processing many times is taken into account several times in the gross turnover.
Intra-factory turnover is the cost of products produced by some and consumed by other workshops during the same period of time.
We will calculate the volume of marketable products and the grade coefficient using the formulas
TP = VpTsd Ks and Ks =
Product A
Initial data:
VpA = 159301 units.
TsdA = 1581.00 rub.
Kc = = = 0.997
TPA = VpACdA Ks = 159301 units. 1581.00 rub. 0.997 = 251099316.36 rubles.
Product B
Initial data:
VpB = 16701 units.
CDB = 1801.00 rub.
P2 = 100% - P1 = 100% - 93% = 7%
Kc = = = 0.997
TPB = VpBCdB Ks = 16701 units. 1801.00 rub. 0.997 = 29988265.50 rub.
The results of the calculations will be transferred to Table 2.
Table 2. Volume of commercial products
FORESTRY COLLEGE OF Emperor Peter I
N. L. Teplitskaya
"Fundamentals of Economics"
METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR CARRYING OUT
PRACTICAL LESSONS
for specialty
140448 Technical operation and maintenance of electrical and electromechanical equipment (timber industry)
Practical lesson No. 1
Topic: Production program and production capacity.
Target: Learn to calculate the indicators of the production program, the production capacity of the enterprise, and the utilization rate of production capacity.
Work order:
OPTION Sample
Problem 1
Exercise 1: Determine the volume of commodity (TP), gross (GP) and sold (RP) products according to the data in the table
Initial data:
Solution to problem 1. Determine the volume of commodity (TP), gross (GP) and sold (RP) products using the formulas.
Volume of commercial products
C g - cost of finished products
C to - the cost of finished products for the needs of capital construction and non-industrial economy of your enterprise
С n - cost of semi-finished products of own production and products of auxiliary workshops for external sales
F is the cost of fixed assets of own production introduced during the period.
C y - the cost of services and work of an industrial nature on orders externally or for non-industrial farms and organizations of one’s own enterprise.
Problem 2
Task 1. Determine the production program, production utilization rate using the formula Mpr (production capacity), planned output volume (Qpr). capacity (K.m.);
Task 2. Draw a conclusion on the use of equipment (identify the leading group of equipment and the “bottleneck” based on labor costs).
Initial data: The amount of equipment, its time fund, and the labor intensity of manufacturing operations are given.
353pcs. etc.
2. The leading group is determined by the greatest labor costs (this is 100 hours - group 6, its We set the value of the production program to 320 pcs.
3. calculate the production capacity utilization rate (Ki.m.) using the formula
Conclusion: The leading group (6) of equipment is determined by the highest labor costs (100 hours per product). Utilization factor K im.m.=1, i.e. calculated for conditions when the production volume Q (production program) is set at the level of production capacity Mpr.
The “bottleneck” is group 1 with Ki.m. = 1.04, the rest require the development of measures for a more complete load.
Control questions.
The production program (product production plan) is determined on the basis of sales volume, product range and range, its quality, profit margin, level of profitability and market share of the enterprise.
The production program consists of two sections: a production plan in physical (conditionally natural) terms and a production plan in value terms.
Production capacity is the ability of the means of labor assigned to the enterprise (machines, equipment, installed production areas) to achieve maximum production output per year. It is calculated in the same natural units in which the volume of production is planned. Characterizes the potential of the enterprise. Determined per year based on the capacity of leading workshops and units.
The number of products produced at the enterprise coincides with the number of products sold.
Commercial products are the cost of finished products that meet the requirements of technical specifications, contracts, standards, documented with delivery documents, accepted by the quality control department and transferred to the finished product warehouse for sale to consumers.
Commercial products are valued at the enterprise price and determined by the formula
TP = 620,000 * 60308.89 = 37,391,511,800 rub.
Sold products (RP) or sales revenue is the cost of products shipped or paid for by the consumer. It is estimated at selling prices and calculated using the formula
.
RP = 620,000 * 72370.67 = 44,869,815,400 rubles.
4.2. Calculation of profit from sales
The enterprise's profit from sales before tax is determined by the formula
–NND,
Where 
– profit per unit of product, den. units;
– annual production of products, pcs.
NIT – the amount of property tax, which is determined by the formula
,
Where 
– residual value of the passive part of fixed assets, den. units;
–real estate tax rate, (1%).
The net profit of an enterprise is determined by the formula
,
where NP is the amount of income tax, which is determined by the formula
,
de 
– income tax rate, (24%);
The results of calculating net profit are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1.
Calculation of net profit
|
Index |
Amount by year, den. units |
|||
|
1. Profit before tax | ||||
|
2. Property tax | ||||
|
3. Income tax | ||||
|
4. Net profit | ||||
5. Calculation of the need for own working capital
Working capital includes the funds necessary to create circulating production assets and circulation funds.
Determining the planned need for own working capital is called rationing. Working capital invested in inventories, work in progress and finished products in the enterprise's warehouse are subject to rationing. All components of working capital are calculated separately.
5.1. Calculation of working capital standards for production inventories
The following are calculated as part of industrial inventories:
Basic and auxiliary materials;
Components and semi-finished products;
The need for working capital to create inventories of materials (main and auxiliary) is determined as follows:
,
Where 
- the norm of the supply of materials, in days;
- annual need for materials, den. units;
T – duration of the planned period (360 days).
The material stock norm is determined in days and includes the norms of current, insurance, and transport stocks:
,
Where 
- the norm of the current stock, which is created for the time between two next deliveries of material resources, days;
- the norm of safety stock, which is created in case of unforeseen supply disruptions, poor-quality deliveries, and is accepted in the amount of 0.5 of the current stock, days;
- the norm of transport stock, which is created in the event of a discrepancy in the transit time of material resources and documents for them, days.
The cost of the annual requirement of materials can be determined by the formula:
,
Where 
- material costs per unit of production, den. units,
cm = 20025*620000 = 12,415,500,000 rub.
NZ = 15+0.5*15+2 = 24.5
Nom(m) = 24.5 * 12415,500,000 / 360 = 844,943,750 rub.
The working capital standard for components is determined by the formula
,
Where 
- norm of stock of components (calculated similarly to the norm of stock of materials), days;
- annual demand for components, den. units, which is determined by the formula
,
Where 
- costs of components per unit of production, den. units
Sk = 18420*620,000 = 11,420,400,000 rub.
Nose (k) = 25 * 11,420,400,000 / 360 = 793,083,333 rub.
The working capital standard for packaging is determined as follows:
,
Where 
- stock norm for containers (5 rubles per 10 thousand rubles of marketable products).
Nose(t) = 37,391,511,800 * 5/ 10,000 = 18,695,756 rub.
Sold products are products manufactured, shipped and paid for by the consumer, sales or trading organization (intermediary).The volume of products sold according to the plan is calculated using the formula:
RP=TP + He – Ok,
where RP is the volume of products sold according to plan, rub.;
TP – volume of marketable products according to plan, rub.;
He is the balance of unsold products at the beginning of the planning period, rub.;
Ok – balances of unsold products at the end of the planning period, rub.
Products sold are those products that were paid for by the buyer in the period under review.
Sales products are finished products intended for sale, delivered to the finished products warehouse and documented before 24:00 on the last day of the month or before 8:00 a.m. on the 1st day of the month following the reporting period. In a market economy, special importance should be given to the indicator “volume of products sold” under supply contracts, which determines the efficiency and feasibility of the enterprise’s economic activities.
Sold products are finished products shipped to the buyer, for which funds are transferred to the suppliers' bank account and measured in current prices.
Cost of goods sold
When calculating the cost of production at an enterprise in which the stock of finished but not sold products, as well as the size of work in progress, can vary significantly from year to year, the problem arises of estimating the cost of goods sold as opposed to the cost of all products produced. It arises due to the fact that in this case, a unit of the same product, located at different technological stages, accounts for different amounts of costs. Therefore, in order to find out the amount of costs per unit of sold products, from all the costs of the enterprise it is necessary to isolate the costs associated directly with the sold products, and then divide by their quantity. However, for this, the enterprise must keep cost records, differentiated by stages of production in sales.Let's illustrate this with an example:
Suppose that the enterprise sold 1000 units of some product “A” during the year, and the costs of production and sales of this product in the period under review amounted to 25,000. Determining the cost of products sold by dividing 25,000 by 1000 can lead to a fairly serious error , since we do not know exactly how much production was produced for 25,000.
The following options are possible: 1000 units of this product were actually produced and sold during the year, then our calculation is correct. Only 500 units were produced during the year, and another 500 units were produced last year and sold from stock. In this case, we significantly underestimated the cost, since the current year’s costs were spread over twice the volume of production. Finally, 1,500 units could have been produced this year, of which 500 remained in the finished goods warehouse. Obviously, in this case, the cost of product “A” turns out to be seriously overestimated.
Let it now be known that a total of 1,200 of the indicated products were produced during the year, and the size of work in progress increased from 3,500 to 4,500. These data allow us to clarify the above calculation. First of all, we must reduce 25,000 by the increase in work in progress, i.e. by 1000, since these funds are invested in future products and are not related to products already released. We divide the remaining 24,000 not by 1000, but by 1200 units and get the cost per unit of product “A” in the amount of 20.
Is our calculation correct? It is easy to see that as a result it turned out that both sold and unsold products have the same cost. This is only possible when the implementation costs nothing; in any other case the result is inaccurate. To clarify it, you need to know the costs of the department involved in the sale of products.
Let's assume that 25,000 includes sales department costs associated with product "A" in the amount of 6,000.
Then the calculation of the cost per unit of products sold will look like this:
(25000 - 1000 - 6000) : 1200 + 6000: 1000 = 21
Total cost estimates are all costs spent (or planned) on the production and sale of products over a certain period, for example, a year. They include costs for sold products, and for unsold but produced ones, and for work in progress, and for production preparation, etc. Therefore, in order to obtain the cost of products sold, it is necessary to exclude all unnecessary costs as this was done in the example discussed above. But even at the same time, strictly speaking, we can determine the cost of products sold with a big error, for example, if this year a large batch of products was sold that were produced in previous years, when the cost was significantly different.
Volume of products sold
Sold products are products shipped by the company from its territory and paid for by the buyer. Its volume is calculated in kind or monetary terms.All necessary information for analysis is taken from standard accounting statements: “Profit and Loss Statement” (form No. 2), “Movement of annual products, their shipment and sale” (statement No. 16), accounting data reflected in accounts 40 “Issue products", 43 "Finished products", 45 "Shipped products" and 90 "Sales". You can also use regular statistical reporting (for example, form No. 1-p “Report on the products of an industrial enterprise”).
The volume of products sold in physical terms is calculated as the sum of units of all products shipped and paid for for all periods included in the reporting period. Natural indicators are pieces, kilograms, packages, tons, meters, etc.
The volume of products sold in monetary (or value) terms is determined by the selling price of the product, including value added tax. The measuring units here are rubles (dollars, euros, etc.). Simply put, products sold in monetary terms are the enterprise’s revenue received from the buyer for the goods shipped to him.
Also, the volume of products sold can be determined on the basis of marketable products. Commercial products include fully finished products that have already been transferred to the buyer or are in the warehouse. In this case, the volume of products sold can be calculated as the difference between marketable products and the balance in the warehouse for a specified period.
It should be remembered that only those products are considered sold for which payment has been received to the company’s bank account (or to the cash register). Therefore, the calculation does not include products transferred to the buyer but not yet paid for.
Most often, the expression “product volume” refers to the volume of products produced or sold by an enterprise over a certain period of time. It can be expressed in quantitative and monetary terms. To find the monetary value of a product, multiply the quantity by the unit price. The calculation becomes somewhat more complicated if the products are not homogeneous, and the price, accordingly, varies depending on the batch. In this case, find the volume of each batch separately and add up the results.
Quite often there is a need to calculate the volume of production in so-called comparable prices. Comparable prices are prices for a specific year or for a specific date. They can be clearly known and recorded or found through appropriate coefficients, for example, through the inflation rate. In the case when you need to find the volume of production at comparable prices, you should multiply the quantity of products produced by the prices of a particular year, or adjust the volume of production at current prices by the required coefficient.
There are also common situations when you need to find the volume of products sold within a certain period, for example, a quarter, six months or a year. In this case, as a rule, the product balances at the beginning and end of a given period are known. To find the volume of production within a certain period of time, to the volume of products produced during a given period, for example, a year, add the available balances of products at the beginning of the year and subtract the balances of products in warehouses at the end of the year.
Price of products sold
If finished products are released to the buyer directly from the supplier’s warehouse or other storage location for finished products, then the recipient is required to present a power of attorney for the right to receive the cargo.The final stage of the process of circulation of enterprise funds is the sale of products (works, services), as a result of which finished products (works, services) are converted into money.
With the introduction of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the concept of sales of finished products was defined. According to Article 39 of the Tax Code, the sale of goods (work, services) is the transfer of ownership of goods from one person to another.
Sales are the main volumetric indicator of an enterprise’s activity. The sales process is a set of business transactions related to the marketing and sale of products. Planning the implementation process begins with providing the enterprise with orders. On their basis, a nomenclature plan is drawn up, which is the basis for organizing the production output of the relevant types of products. Orders are coordinated with product customers and material suppliers. Agreements are concluded with buyers, which specify the assortment, shipment terms, quantity and quality of products, price, and form of payment.
According to Article 39 “Sales of goods, works or services”: the sale of goods, works or services by an organization or an individual entrepreneur is recognized as the transfer on a reimbursable basis (including the exchange of goods, works or services) of ownership of goods, results of work performed by one person for another person, the provision of paid services by one person to another person, and in cases provided for by this Code, the transfer of ownership of goods, the results of work performed by one person for another person, the provision of services by one person to another person - on a free basis.
The place and moment of actual sale of goods, works or services are determined in accordance with part two of this Code.
The following are not recognized as sales of goods, works or services:
1) carrying out operations related to the circulation of Russian or foreign currency (except for numismatic purposes);
On the applicability of the norm of subparagraph 1 of paragraph 3 of Article 39 of the Code to income received by banks from the purchase and sale of foreign currency, see letter of the Ministry of Taxes of the Russian Federation N DCH-8-07/1477
2) transfer of fixed assets, intangible assets and (or) other property of the organization to its legal successor(s) during the reorganization of this organization;
3) transfer of fixed assets, intangible assets and (or) other property to non-profit organizations for the implementation of the main statutory activities not related to business activities;
4) transfer of property, if such transfer is of an investment nature (in particular, contributions to the authorized (share) capital of business companies and partnerships, contributions under a simple partnership agreement (agreement on joint activities), share contributions to mutual funds of cooperatives);
5) transfer of property within the limits of the initial contribution to a participant in a business company or partnership (his legal successor or heir) upon exit (disposal) from the business company or partnership, as well as when distributing the property of a liquidated business company or partnership between its participants;
6) transfer of property within the limits of the initial contribution to a participant in a simple partnership agreement (joint activity agreement) or his legal successor in the event of the separation of his share from the property that is in common ownership of the participants in the agreement, or the division of such property;
7) transfer of residential premises to individuals in houses of the state or municipal housing stock during privatization;
8) seizure of property by confiscation, inheritance of property, as well as the conversion into the property of other persons of ownerless and abandoned things, ownerless animals, finds, treasure in accordance with the norms of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation;
9) other operations in cases provided for by this Code.
Retail trade is the most important sector of economic activity. The main indicator of the performance of trading enterprises is retail turnover. In the sphere of retail trade, the process of circulation of goods ends and they move into the sphere of personal consumption. Retail trade is the sale of goods directly to the public for personal consumption. Retail trade is divided according to forms of ownership: state, collective, joint, private, mixed.
Accounting at a retail trade enterprise must ensure:
Monitoring the implementation of the retail turnover plan, preparing information necessary to manage all services of the enterprise;
checking the correctness of documentation, legality and expediency of commodity-package transactions, their timely and complete reflection in accounting;
organization of financial liability for goods and containers;
control over the correct write-off of commodity losses;
control over compliance with the rules for conducting inventories, timely identification and recording of their results.
The main component of retail turnover is the sale of goods to the public for cash, and the volume of sales is determined by the revenue for goods sold. At a retail trade enterprise, one of the most important parts of accounting is the accounting of goods and containers.
Sales of goods in retail trade enterprises are carried out in cash. Accounting for goods at retail trade enterprises selling goods to the public is carried out in total or quantitative-total terms. Documentation of the sale of goods for cash depends on the form of customer service and the procedure for receiving cash from them.
The main purpose of wholesale trade is to organize an uninterrupted, rational supply of goods to retailers and industrial enterprises, to ensure a balance between supply and demand.
The main quantitative indicator that allows us to assess the volume of work of a wholesale enterprise is wholesale turnover.
Wholesale trade turnover is the sale of goods by trading enterprises to other enterprises that use these goods either for subsequent resale, or for industrial consumption as raw materials, or for material support, economic needs. As a result of wholesale trade, goods do not pass into the sphere of personal consumption, but remain in the sphere of circulation or enter the sphere of industrial consumption. In other words, in wholesale trade, goods are sold for subsequent processing or resale.
The volume of trade turnover, its structure, types and forms of commodity circulation predetermine other important indicators of economic activity.
Depending on the purpose of commodity resources and the degree of completion of wholesale sales, wholesale trade turnover is divided into the following types:
Wholesale sales turnover includes the sale of goods to organizations and retail and public catering enterprises located in the area where the wholesale enterprise operates, deliveries to off-market consumers (for industrial processing and industrial consumption, for stocks of workwear, special footwear, etc.) and for export. Wholesale sales also include the cost of goods supplied to retail under direct contracts, if the wholesale enterprise is involved in organizing these deliveries, deliveries to off-market consumers, for export and through clearing. It is typical for wholesale sales that it completes the movement of goods in the wholesale chain and accounts for almost 2/3 of the gross wholesale turnover.
Wholesale trade turnover to enterprises represents the sale of goods in large quantities using cash and non-cash payments. In this case, cash payments between legal entities can be made within 10,000 rubles, a larger amount must be transferred. Cash turnover is subject to sales tax and value added tax, which must be reflected in the accompanying documents. Wholesale sales involve completing a transaction by signing contracts, which indicate all the details of the counterparty enterprises, as well as all the parameters of the contract, with a reservation for cash or non-cash payments.
The main tasks of accounting for the receipt of goods and the implementation of supply contracts:
Monitoring the implementation of the plan for the receipt of goods in general, as well as by sources of receipt;
monitoring the fulfillment of contractual obligations by suppliers in terms of quantity (volume), assortment, quality, delivery times of goods;
control over the correct determination of the quantity, quality, prices, cost of goods received by the store, over the timely and high-quality execution of documents for received goods. The justification and timely submission of claims to the supplier or transport organizations for short-delivery of goods, for a decrease in their quality compared to that specified in the supplier’s documents depends on this;
control over the timely and complete posting of received goods by materially responsible persons, which is an important condition for ensuring the safety of inventory items;
control over the implementation of timely and correct payments to suppliers for received and capitalized goods.
Cost of goods sold
The production and economic activities of an enterprise are its activities related to the production, manufacturing, extraction of products, performing various industrial works, processing parts, repairing industrial products for third-party customers, etc., with the aim of making a profit. In other words, the constant activity of the enterprise is called production and economic activity. Since the concept of production and economic activity of an enterprise is very large, this thesis will only consider the costs of production.Costs characterize in monetary terms the volume of resources for a certain period used for the production and sale of products, and are transformed into the cost of products, works and services.
Costs play a large role in the performance of an organization. The financial result from the sale of finished products, performance of work, and services depends on the amount of costs. After all, the financial result is defined as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products without deductions provided for by law and the costs of its production and sale. Since the costs associated with the production and sale of products have a direct impact on the cost. The list of costs is strictly regulated.
In economic literature and in practice, along with the term “costs,” such terms as “expenses” and “costs” are also widely used. Moreover, many authors treat them as synonyms and do not distinguish between these three concepts. Meanwhile, in fact, these concepts have different economic content.
The idea of enterprise costs is based on three important principles:
Costs are determined by the use of resources, reflecting how much and what resources are used in the production and sale of products over a certain period.
- the volume of resources used can be presented in natural and monetary units, but in economic calculations they resort to the monetary expression of costs.
- determination of costs is always related to specific goals and objectives, i.e. The volume of resources used in monetary terms is calculated by the main functions of product production and its sales for the enterprise as a whole or for production divisions of the enterprise.
The objectives of the production cost analysis study are:
Assessing the dynamics of the most important cost indicators and implementing the plan for them,
- assessment of the validity and intensity of the plan for production costs,
- identification of factors that influenced the dynamics of cost indicators and the implementation of the plan for them, the magnitude and reasons for deviations of actual costs from planned ones,
- assessment of the dynamics and implementation of the plan at cost by element and by cost item of individual types of products,
- identifying missed opportunities to reduce production costs.
The purpose of cost analysis is to identify opportunities to improve the efficiency of using all types of resources in the production and marketing process.
In a market system, production costs are one of the main qualitative indicators of the activities of business entities and their structural divisions. Financial results (profit or loss), the rate of expansion of production, and the financial condition of business entities depend on the level of costs.
The indicator of costs for the production of manufactured products allows you to evaluate the work of the enterprise not only from the qualitative side, but at the same time reflects the quantitative results of its work, since a tangible reduction in production costs is, first of all, achieved by increasing production output, which is directly related to the proper management of the production team and technological processes of the enterprise.
A cost objective is any activity for which costs are measured separately.
The most economically feasible approach to building a cost accounting system is to identify typical groups of decisions (for example, control over labor costs or the use of materials) and select corresponding cost accounting objects (for example, products or divisions).
Thus, based on the above, we can conclude that cost management plays an important role in the enterprise management system. The practice of enterprises shows that without a correct assessment of the real cost, it is impossible to properly manage the activities of the enterprise, and a correct assessment of the cost is possible only with effective cost management.
To summarize information about production costs, products (works, services), account 20 “Main production” is intended. The debit of this account reflects direct costs associated directly with the production of products, performance of work and provision of services, as well as costs of auxiliary production, indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of the main production, and losses from defects. Direct costs associated directly with the production of products, performance of work and provision of services are written off to account 20 “Main production” from the credit of inventory accounts, settlements with employees for wages, etc. Expenses of auxiliary production are written off to account 20 “Main production” from the credit of account 23 “Auxiliary production”. Indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of production are written off to account 20 “Main production” from accounts 25 “General production expenses” and 26 “General expenses”. Losses from defects are written off to account 20 “Main production” from the credit of account 28 “Defects in production”. The credit of account 20 “Main production” reflects the amounts of the actual cost of products completed by production, work performed and services performed. These amounts can be written off from account 20 “Main production” to the debit of accounts 43 “Finished products”, 40 “Output of products (works, services)”, 90 “Sales”, etc.
The balance of account 20 “Main production” at the end of the month shows the cost of work in progress.
Analytical accounting for account 20 “Main production” is carried out by types of costs and types of products (works, services). If the formation of information on expenses for ordinary activities is not carried out on accounts 20 - 39, then analytical accounting on account 20 “Main production” is also carried out by divisions of the organization.
The main sources of information for analyzing production costs and the cost of products sold are statistical reporting - form No. 5-z “Information on the costs of production and sales of products (works, services), form No. 2T “Information on the movement of workers and labor costs "; statement No. 12, 15; order journals No. 10, 10/1; report on the cost of marketable products; planned and reporting costing data for the most important products; reports on the implementation of cost estimates for maintenance and production management; data on production waste and losses from defects; reports on material consumption in comparison with consumption standards.
In accordance with International Accounting Standards, expenses include losses and expenses that arise in the course of the main activities of the enterprise. These typically take the form of outflows or reductions in the asset. Expenses are recognized in the income statement based on the direct relationship between the costs incurred and the revenues from certain items of income. This approach is called matching income and expenses. In accounting, all income must be related to the costs of obtaining it, called expenses. Costs should be accumulated in accounts 10 “Materials”, 02 “Depreciation”, 70 “Payroll calculations”, then in accounts 20 “Main production”, 43 “Finished products” and not written off to sales accounts until the products , the goods and services with which they are associated will not be sold. Only at the time of sale does the enterprise recognize its income and the associated part of the costs - expenses.
Expenses reflect a decrease in means of payment or other property of the enterprise and are reflected in accounting at the time of payment.
The concept of “expenses” is often taken to be identical to the concept of “payments”. However, there is a difference between these terms. Disbursements represent actual cash expenditures (such as cash purchases), while expenses represent both cash payments and credit purchases. Consequently, the concept of “expenses” is broader than the concept of “payments”.
The expenses of an enterprise, depending on their nature, conditions of implementation and directions of its activities, are divided into: expenses for ordinary activities; operating expenses; non-operating expenses; emergency expenses.
But only expenses for ordinary activities of the enterprise, which are associated with the manufacture and sale of products, performance of work and provision of services, acquisition and sale of goods, can be compared with costs and their differences can be identified.
There are differences in the time relationship between expenses and expenses. Costs, unlike expenses, are reflected in the enterprise's accounting at the time of consumption in the production process. Ultimately, all expenses for ordinary activities of an enterprise for a certain period must necessarily be transformed into costs. Expenses that are not classified as expenses for some reason characterize errors in accounting for the costs of production and sales of products. In the valuation for periods of operation of the enterprise, expenses differ from expenses. Expenses for a certain period of operation of an enterprise may exceed costs, be equal to costs, or be less than costs.
Costs are the real or estimated costs of an enterprise's financial resources. It is no coincidence that the expressions “material costs” and “labor costs” are not accepted in practice - neither material resources nor labor belong to finance. Costs in the literal sense of the word are a set of movements of financial resources and relate either to assets, if they are capable of generating income in the future, or to liabilities, if this does not happen and the retained earnings of the enterprise for the reporting period decrease. Lost opportunity costs are the loss of income when choosing one of the methods of carrying out economic activities.
The concept of expenses is narrower than the concept of costs - it only implies specific payments in a certain period.
Costs and expenses may be the same or may differ from each other, and these differences are predominantly of a subject nature.
These differences are due to three main reasons:
Costs and expenses differ due to the essential economic nature of the assessment. Costs have a calculated (costing) nature of assessment. They are reflected in internal accounting, depend on the cost accounting system used (full or partial costs) and are not necessarily related to payment flows in the enterprise. Costs are of a payment nature and are reflected in the external (financial) accounting of the enterprise;
- costs may not have signs of costs: a number of costs in production accounting have no analogues among costs (for example, estimated risks, estimated wages of an entrepreneur in individual private enterprises, estimated rent for the use of premises privately owned by an entrepreneur, estimated interest on equity capital, estimated depreciation charges, etc.);
- costs may not have a direct connection with the production of products. Costs in the reporting period, although they arise as part of the production process, are not always associated with the manufacture of products. For example, repair of an object that is not included in the property of the enterprise necessary for production activities, donations. Costs that are not related to a given period and therefore are not costs of this period (for example, additional payment of property and land taxes). Costs associated with emergency situations that are not related to the costs of production in the reporting period (for example, restoration of damage caused by a natural disaster).
The subject of cost management is the costs of the enterprise in all their diversity.
The first feature of costs as a subject of management is their dynamism. They are in constant motion and change. Thus, in market economic conditions, prices for purchased raw materials and materials, components and products, tariffs for energy resources and services (communications, transport, etc.) are constantly changing. Products are being updated, consumption rates for material and labor costs are being revised, which is reflected in the cost products and cost levels. Therefore, consideration of costs in static terms is very arbitrary and does not reflect their level in real life.
The second feature of costs as a subject of management is their diversity, which requires the use of a wide range of techniques and methods in their management.
The third feature of costs is the difficulty of their measurement, accounting and evaluation. There are no absolutely accurate methods for measuring and accounting for costs.
The fourth feature is the complexity and inconsistency of the influence of costs on the economic result. For example, it is possible to increase the profit of an enterprise by reducing current production costs, which, however, is ensured by increasing capital costs for R&D, equipment and technology. High profits from product production are often significantly reduced due to high disposal costs, etc.
Cost management in an enterprise is designed to solve the following main tasks:
Identifying the role of cost management as a factor in increasing economic performance;
- determination of costs for basic management functions;
- calculation of costs by operational geographic segments, production divisions of the enterprise;
- calculation of necessary costs per unit of production (work, services);
- preparation of an information base that allows you to estimate costs when choosing and making business decisions;
- identification of technical methods and means of measuring and controlling costs;
- search for cost reduction reserves at all stages of the production process and in all production departments of the enterprise;
- selection of cost rationing methods;
- selection of a cost management system that corresponds to the operating conditions of the enterprise.
Cost management problems must be solved in a comprehensive manner. Only this approach bears fruit, contributing to a sharp increase in the economic efficiency of the enterprise.
The basic principles of cost management have been developed by practice and boil down to the following:
Systematic approach to cost management;
- unity of methods practiced at different levels of cost management;
- cost management at all stages of the product life cycle from creation to disposal;
- an organic combination of cost reduction with high quality products (works, services);
- avoidance of unnecessary costs;
- widespread introduction of effective cost reduction methods;
- improving information support about the level of costs;
- increasing the interest of production departments of the enterprise in reducing costs.
Compliance with all principles of cost management creates the basis for the economic competitiveness of an enterprise and its conquest of leading positions in the market.
Profitability of products sold
Profitability is a relative indicator characterizing the degree of economic efficiency of using any resource (material, monetary, labor). It is calculated using special formulas and usually has a percentage expression. Profitability can be called the most important indicator for assessing the activities of a commercial enterprise.This concept is used very widely and is divided into several types, but, in principle, it represents the ratio of the profit received from an activity to any asset or resource.
Therefore, the profitability ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of profit by the value of interest. Both values are taken in the same units. Since it is quite difficult to express profit in non-monetary form, the denominator is also given in monetary terms. Most often, profitability is calculated as a percentage.
It should be noted that the approach to profitability ratios is not as strict as to purely mathematical formulas; there is a replacement of words that are similar in sound and content to concepts. Thus, the profitability of production can be considered both as the profitability of the process and as the profitability of the production complex. Therefore, it is worth considering not only the name of the term, but the components of a specific formula and their practical meaning.
The most common profitability indicators are:
Profitability of products (sold) - the profit received from the sale of a certain amount of products is divided by the cost of these products.
The profitability of services sold is calculated in approximately the same way. Only the denominator includes the costs of providing the quantity of services specified in the numerator.
Return on fixed assets is the ratio of net profit from activities for a period to the cost of fixed assets.
The profitability of an enterprise is equal to the ratio of profit to the total cost of fixed and working capital of the enterprise.
Personnel profitability is the ratio of net profit for a certain period to the average number of personnel for the specified period.
The following indicators are also used:
Total return on assets is the ratio of net profit for the period to the average total value of the enterprise's assets.
Return on equity (ROE) is the same as the above ratio, but in relation to the organization’s own capital.
Return on assets used is profit before taxes and mandatory interest in relation to the amount of equity capital and long-term loans.
The list of profitability ratios used is not limited to those listed above. As economic and financial relations develop and investment develops, new, previously unused coefficients appear. The general rule that unites them could be roughly expressed as the ratio of the amount of benefit received (profit) to the resource used to obtain it.
Let us dwell on the indicators most frequently used in our conditions and, therefore, informative for us:
Return on Sales (ROS, from the English Return on Sales) is a very important indicator that reflects the share of profit in total revenue (turnover). The most common calculation used is profit before taxes - operating profit. This seems justified, since the amount of taxes is not directly related to the efficiency of activities, and profitability is, first of all, an indicator of economic effect. But net profit margin can also be used. This allows you to better visualize the real benefits of sales.
Accordingly, return on sales can be calculated using the following formulas:
Total Return on Sales = Gross Profit / Revenue;
Net return on sales = Net profit / Revenue.
The concept of revenue can be replaced by the concept of turnover, which does not affect the essence of the relationship.
These coefficients are used primarily to assess the current state of affairs. Return on sales allows you to determine the operational efficiency of the organization, i.e. her ability to organize and control current activities. Which, in turn, shows the direction of the company’s movement, decline or growth.
The profitability of products sold is defined as the ratio of profit from sales of products to the amount of costs for the production and sale of these products. Costs, in this case, include material costs for production (cost of raw materials, components, energy, etc.), labor costs, overhead costs, and trading costs.
Ррп = (CPU – PSP)/PSP x 100;
Where:
Ррп – profitability of sold products;
SP – selling price of the product;
PSP is the full cost of this product.
Sometimes this ratio is called the profitability of production (as a process).
The profitability of production (as a production complex) is calculated as the ratio of the amount of profit (total) to the sum of the costs of fixed and standardized working capital.
ORP = OP/(OS+OBS);
Where ORP is the overall profitability of production;
OS – fixed assets of the enterprise (buildings, structures, equipment);
OBS – standardized working capital (inventory, semi-finished products for the production cycle, finished products in warehouses).
Based on the above, we can conclude that the concept of profitability is very broad. Methods and formulas for its calculation are a flexible working tool for determining profitability and benefits from certain investments in material, human and other resources and assets.
Product sales indicator
To characterize the volume of production and sales of products in value terms, indicators of gross and marketable output are used.Gross output is the value of all products produced and work performed, including work in progress. Usually expressed in comparable prices.
Products sold are paid for, if you consider them “on payment”. It is also possible to account for sold products “by shipment” - products sent to the buyer’s address, but not yet paid for, are taken into account. At industrial enterprises, the marketable output indicator is used to assess the volume of production. Based on data on the volume of commercial products, series of dynamics of production and sales indicators are constructed over a long period, both in total volume and by type of product. Based on the volume of marketable products, labor productivity, capital productivity, and capital intensity of production are determined.
Commercial output differs from gross output in that it does not include the remains of work in progress and on-farm turnover. It is expressed in wholesale prices in force in the reporting year. In terms of its composition, in many enterprises the gross output coincides with the commodity output, if there is no on-farm turnover and work in progress.
Analysis of commercial products is carried out in two directions:
A) assessment of the implementation of the annual plan for the production of commercial products;
b) analysis of the dynamics of commercial output over a number of years. Analysis of the fulfillment of annual plan tasks in terms of production volume of marketable products is carried out according to annual or quarterly reporting and the annual plan. The implementation of the plan is assessed by comparing the reported data on the volume of commercial output with the planned ones, determining the absolute deviation from the plan, the percentage of completion of the annual plan and the growth rate compared to the previous year.
Profit from products sold
The company receives the bulk of its profit from the sale of products. The volume of profit from product sales is influenced by six factors: volume of product sales; its structure; level of production costs; level of business expenses; level of management expenses; level of average selling prices.Profit from product sales is directly proportional to sales volume: the more products sold, the more profit they received, and vice versa.
A change in the structure of sold products can have both a positive and negative impact on the amount of profit: if the share of more profitable types of products in the total volume of sales increases, then the amount of profit increases, and vice versa - with an increase in the share of low-profit or unprofitable products, the total amount of profit will decrease .
The level of production costs, as well as commercial and administrative expenses and profits are inversely proportional: as production costs or commercial and administrative expenses increase, profit decreases accordingly, and vice versa.
Changes in the level of average selling prices and the amount of profit are in direct proportion to the relationship: as prices increase, the amount of profit increases accordingly, and vice versa.
To determine the impact of sales volume on sales profit, it is necessary to recalculate the planned profit by the percentage of overfulfillment or nonfulfillment of the plan for product sales.
To calculate the impact of changes in the structure of sold products on sales profit, it is necessary to determine the amount of the difference between the profit according to the plan, recalculated to the actual sales volume, and the profit according to the plan. This difference determines the amount of profit received due to changes in sales volume and its structure. Consequently, it is then necessary to get rid of the influence of the sales volume factor, for which it is necessary to exclude the sum of the factor of the influence of sales volume on sales profit from the resulting amount of the difference.
All obtained indicators determine the impact of production costs on sales profits; impact on profit from sales of commercial and administrative expenses; the impact of changes in the level of average selling prices on sales profit.
Similarly, the profit from sales of products is analyzed compared to the previous year.
VAT on sold products
In accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 146 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the sale of goods (work, services) on the territory of Russia is recognized as subject to VAT.These objects are considered sold if the ownership of them has passed from the seller to the buyer or the ownership of the results of work performed (services provided) has passed from the contractor to the customer.
It should be noted that the gratuitous transfer of ownership of goods (results of work performed, services provided) is also included in the concept of sales and is subject to VAT. It is also important to remember that the transfer of property rights is also a sale.
It is necessary to accrue VAT for payment to the budget in cases with all transactions that are recognized as objects of taxation and the moment of determining the tax base for which relates to the corresponding tax period.
According to paragraph 1 of Art. 167 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the moment of determining the tax base for the purpose of calculating VAT should be the earliest of the following dates:
Day of shipment (transfer) of goods (works, services);
day of payment, partial payment on account of upcoming deliveries of goods (performance of work, provision of services).
Consequently, VAT for payment to the budget is assigned either on the day of shipment (transfer) of goods (works, services), or on the day of their payment - depending on which of these events occurred earlier. If an organization has shipped goods to a buyer (performed work, provided services), then it must charge VAT on this transaction.
In accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 153 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, when determining the tax base for VAT, revenue from the sale of goods (work, services) should be determined based on all the organization’s income associated with payments for these goods (work, services).
In general, it is necessary to determine revenue from the sale of goods (works and services) based on the prices established in the agreement with the buyer (customer). By default, these prices are considered to correspond to market prices.
If an organization sells goods (performs work, provides services) by concluding fixed-term transactions, they need to determine the VAT tax base based on the cost of these goods (work, services) specified directly in the contract.
It should be taken into account that it should not be lower than their cost, calculated on the basis of market prices valid on the date of shipment (transfer) of goods (work, services) or on the date of payment, depending on which of these events occurred earlier.
The cost of goods, works or services must take into account excise tax (for excisable goods) and not take into account VAT.
According to paragraph 4 of Art. 154 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, when an organization sells agricultural products or processed products that are purchased from the population, the VAT tax base is determined as the difference between the market price and the purchase price of the product.
In accordance with clause 5.1 of Art. 154 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, when an organization sells cars previously purchased from citizens for resale, the VAT tax base should be considered as the difference between the market price including VAT and the purchase price of the vehicle.
Cars must be purchased from citizens who are not entrepreneurs.
If this condition is met, VAT on the sale of cars is calculated as follows:
VAT = Sales price - Purchase price x 18 / 118.
Products sold account
The sales process is a set of business transactions related to the marketing and sale of products. Sales of products are carried out in accordance with concluded agreements with buyers (customers). The purpose of reflecting business transactions for sales on accounting accounts is to identify the financial result from the sale of products (works, services). Financial calculations are made monthly on the basis of documents confirming the sale of products (works, services).To account for sales, balanceless account 90 “Sales” is used:
|
Sales of products (work, services) at full cost |
Corresponding account |
Sold products (works, services) at sales prices |
Corresponding account |
|
2. Actual cost written off: · Products shipped · Works, services 3. General business expenses are written off (according to accounting policy) 4. Business expenses written off 5. VAT charged 6. Excise tax charged 7. Profit from sales (works, services) (1>2+3+4+5+6+7) |
1. An invoice has been submitted for payment for the products shipped, work performed and services rendered 7. Loss from sales of products (works, services) (1<2+3+4+5+6+7) |
On account 90, both in debit and in credit, the same volume of sales of products (works, services) is reflected, but in different estimates - on the credit - at sales prices (free, contractual, etc.), and on the debit - at full cost including value added tax, excise tax and similar mandatory payments. By comparing the proceeds from the sale of products with the amount reflected in the debit of account 90, the result from the sale of products (works, services) is identified - profit or loss, which is attributed to account 99 “Profits and losses”.
Transactions on account 90 are reflected at the moment of transfer of ownership of products (work, services) from the enterprise to the buyer (customer). In this case, taxation of sold products is carried out depending on the option chosen by the accounting policy.
On account 90 “Sales” the following sub-accounts are required to be opened:
1. Revenue,
2. Cost of sales,
3. Value added tax,
4. Excise taxes,
9. Profit/loss from sales.
Options for recording the moment of transfer of ownership rights to shipped products:
If the supply agreement provides for a moment of transfer of the right of ownership and use that differs from the above general procedure. Disposal of products and the risk of their accidental loss from the enterprise to the buyer (customer), then in this case, those accepted for accounting under account 45 “Goods shipped” are debited to account 90 from the moment the products become the property of the buyer.
The buyer pays for the delivered products in compliance with the procedure and form of payment provided for in the supply agreement. If the procedure and forms of settlements are not determined by agreement of the parties, then settlements are carried out by payment orders.
Accounting for settlements with buyers and customers is kept on active account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”:
In accordance with concluded agreements, an enterprise can receive advances for the supply of material assets and for the performance of work.
To account for advances received from buyers (customers), a passive subaccount of account 62 “Calculations for advances received” is used:
Types of products sold
The objects of planning and implementation in the coal industry are:Coal mining production association; an enterprise that has complete operational, production and economic independence and is endowed with the rights of a legal entity;
- a production unit (mine) endowed only with operational and production independence.
Production associations and independent coal enterprises plan their activities according to all indicators and in full.
Their activities are carried out in accordance with the Regulations on the production association (plant).
The main type of production plan for production associations and independent enterprises is a plan broken down by year.
It includes the following sections:
Production and sales of products;
- technical development and production organization;
- indicators of increasing economic efficiency of production;
- norms and standards;
- need for basic material resources;
- labor and personnel;
- cost, profit and profitability of production;
- economic incentive funds;
- financial plan.
In the coal industry, the main indicators of the plan are established for the production association: the volume of products sold, the production of the most important types of products in physical terms, including for export; indicators of improving product quality, growth in labor productivity, total wage fund, total and estimated profitability; allocation from the budget, payments to the budget, the total volume of centralized capital investments, including for construction and installation work, commissioning of fixed assets and production facilities at the expense of centralized capital investments, assignments for the introduction of new equipment; norms and regulations.
These indicators are calculated based on production volume taking into account (or without taking into account) internal turnover. The association, in turn, approves the production units of the main indicators of plans that ensure the implementation of the planned tasks approved by the association with the greatest economic efficiency.
The objectives of the plan are specified by year and adjusted in the process of developing the annual plan - the technical industrial financial plan.
The technical and economic plan of an association and an independent enterprise consists of the following sections: main indicators of production and economic activity, a plan for production and sales of products, a plan for increasing production efficiency, planned technical and economic standards and norms, a capital construction plan, a material and technical supply plan, a labor and wages, a plan for cost, profit and profitability of production, a plan for economic incentive funds, a financial plan with indicators of balance sheet profit and profitability.
An important section is the planned development of the enterprise team, which ensures the complexity of the technical industrial and financial plan.
The Techpromfinplan is developed on the basis of setting a plan for the planned year, the results of an analysis of economic activity in the current year, and proposals from workers to improve production, increase its efficiency and product quality.
The draft technical industrial financial plan begins to be developed in 5-6 months. before the start of the planned year, the final plan must be approved 1.5-2 months.
The draft annual plan for production units is drawn up on the basis of preliminary assignments received from the association for key indicators, production capacity, the mining development plan and the main technical directions for the development of the mine, as well as an analysis of the implementation of the current year plan.
A detailed annual plan for all indicators is developed after review of the project and approval by the association of the main technical and economic indicators.
For production units, not a technical industrial and financial plan is drawn up, but an annual plan of production and economic activity. It should provide for the introduction of organizational and technical measures to make fuller use of existing production capacities and new equipment, improve production technology, reduce specific capital investments, labor intensity of work and specific consumption rates of material and monetary resources.
The planned technical and economic indicators must not be lower than the achieved level. The plan indicators are distributed by quarter, and quarterly indicators by month.
The association approves the following plan indicators for production units:
Volume of products sold at wholesale prices; coal production (total), including by grade (if sorted - by class), coal production for coking (total), from it by grade; production of large-medium grades of coal (total), including large ones;
- volume of coal processing at mechanized rock removal plants; number of personnel in industry, including industrial production personnel;
- growth rate of gross output per employee of industrial production personnel compared to the corresponding indicator for the previous year;
- average monthly labor productivity of a coal mining worker in tons;
- the wage fund of personnel employed in industry, including the wage fund of unpaid personnel;
- production cost of 1 ton of coal mining;
- profit (loss) in wholesale prices;
- average wholesale price of 1 ton of coal;
- the volume of capital investments, including construction and installation work carried out by the production unit; number of personnel employed in capital construction, including workers; the output of one employee for construction and installation work; wage fund for personnel involved in capital construction;
- main tasks for the introduction of new equipment, advanced technology, mechanization and automation of production processes;
- main tasks for nature conservation and rational use of natural resources;
- main tasks for team development.
At the same time, the following norms, standards and limits are established for production units:
Norms of ash content of mined and shipped coal by grade (class);
- standards for sulfur content in coals shipped for coking;
- standard for operational losses of coal in the ground;
- norms for the consumption of basic materials and energy in general), including for technological needs;
- limit on the consumption of own coal for production and technical needs;
- standards for inventories of material assets;
- standards for fixed working capital;
- the amount of funds from funds for material incentives, socio-cultural events and housing construction, and in some cases, the production development fund;
- standards for deductions to economic incentive funds;
- limit on expenses for maintaining the management apparatus;
- per ton rate; task to reduce the cost of construction and installation work performed by the production unit;
- tasks to reduce the cost of major repairs performed in-house.
The annual plan is communicated to production units no later than one month before the start of the planned year. Based on the approved indicators, a detailed plan of production and economic activities is drawn up, plans for sections are drawn up, and organizational and technical measures are developed for their implementation.
Quarterly plans broken down by month are approved by production units no later than 15 days before the start of the planned quarter.
Monthly plans are communicated to sites and workshops no later than 5 days before the start of the planned month.
Relevant materials for the development of the annual plan are presented to the planning group by individual services of the production unit (production, technical, energy-mechanical, labor and wage standardization group, and even-control department), as well as sections and workshops. Materials must contain the necessary justifications and calculations, proposals and measures to increase coal production and quality, increase labor productivity and reduce costs. Planned activities must contain calculations of economic efficiency.
Products sold formula
Sold products characterize the cost of the volume of products that entered the market in a given period and are payable by consumers. Sold products differ from commercial products by the balance of finished products in the warehouse.The volume of products sold (RP) according to the plan is determined by the formula:
RP = TP + He – Ok,
Where On and Ok are the balances of unsold products at the beginning and end of the planning period.
At the end of the year, the balance of unsold products is taken into account only for finished products in the warehouse and shipped goods for which payment has not yet arrived.
Example. Determine the size of gross, marketable and sold products. In the reporting period, the enterprise produced products X in the amount of 500 units, products Y - 800 units. The price of product X is 2.5 thousand rubles, Y is 3.2 thousand rubles. The cost of non-industrial services provided to third parties is 50 thousand rubles. The balance of work in progress at the beginning of the year was 65 thousand rubles, at the end of the year – 45 thousand rubles. Remains of finished products in warehouses at the beginning of the period - 75 thousand rubles, at the end of the period - 125 thousand rubles.
Solution: The volume of marketable products is determined by the formula:
TP = (500 x 2.5 + 800 x 3.2) + 50 = 3,860 thousand rubles.
Gross output differs from marketable output by the amount of change in work in progress balances at the beginning and end of the planning period: VP = 3,860 + 45 – 65 = 3,840 thousand rubles.
We determine the volume of products sold using formula (1.4): RP = 3,860 + 75 – 125 = 3,810 thousand rubles.
Companies selling products
In practice, companies whose export shipments are one-time in nature use a method of maintaining separate accounting, the essence of which is that, in fact, the organization supposedly initially does not intend to carry out export shipments at all.Thus, the taxpayer declares deduction of the submitted VAT in full during the period of acquisition of raw materials, goods and materials with the subsequent restoration of tax amounts related to export products during the period of their shipment (see also the box above). The advantage is that this method allows you to fairly accurately determine the amount of VAT related to export goods.
The Russian Ministry of Finance has repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that companies that constantly sell products for export do not have the right to unlimitedly claim VAT deductions in the general manner.
At the same time, some companies determine the amount of VAT subject to restoration based on the share of material costs and their value in products shipped for export, including based on data from previous periods. The legality of this approach was confirmed by the FAS of the Central District in resolution No. A35-2025/07-C18.
However, companies that regularly ship significant volumes of products for export may face tax risks when using this method. The Russian Ministry of Finance has repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that companies that constantly sell products for export do not have the right to unlimitedly claim VAT deductions in the general manner (clause 3 of Article 170 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, letters No. 03-07-08/172 and No. 03-07- 08/163).
Consequently, regular deduction of the entire amount of VAT followed by regular recovery for export shipments may lead to claims from the tax authorities. The controllers will not be against restoring the tax, but may refuse deductions. After all, the organization knew about the acquisition of goods or materials for export operations, but accepted for deduction the entire amount of tax in violation of legal requirements.
In addition, as a rule, the amount of VAT on the costs of export shipments, which the company determined by calculation, may differ from the actual costs of producing exported products. For example, if during the period the forecast did not come true or due to an increase in the share of export supplies.
In this case, it is more expedient to restore the “input” tax to the exporter, taking into account the adjustment, the procedure for which also needs to be fixed in the accounting policy. To reduce the risk of disputes with tax authorities, when making adjustments, a company can use the same calculation indicator (volume, value, cost, etc.) that is used to maintain separate accounting.
Quality of products sold
At the present stage of development of the metallurgical industry (as well as other industries), the most important direction for increasing production efficiency is improving the quality of products.Therefore, when analyzing the production and economic activities of enterprises, the qualitative characteristics of the products must be taken into account.
There are general, individual and indirect indicators of product quality.
General indicators characterize the quality of all manufactured products, regardless of their type and purpose. For example this:
The share of new products in the total volume of its output;
- share of certified products;
- share of exported products, including to industrialized countries;
- share of products that meet international standards.
Individual indicators characterize the properties of individual types of products. These include, in particular:
Iron content in ore;
- content of harmful impurities in cast iron or steel;
- average product grade coefficient. Indirect indicators reflect the quality of all or individual types of products. For example:
- the amount of defects and losses from defects;
- presence of complaints and the amount of losses from complaints;
- the amount of surcharges and discounts for the quality of all or individual types of products.
In the process of analysis, the dynamics of quality indicators is studied, the degree of fulfillment of the plan for product quality, and the impact of quality changes on the performance indicators of the enterprise are assessed.
Accounting for products sold
In accordance with the New Chart of Accounts, revenue from sales is recorded on account 90 “Sales” subaccount 90-1 “Revenue”. This subaccount is intended to summarize information about income related to the organization’s normal activities.This account reflects, in particular, revenue from:
Finished products and semi-finished products of own production;
industrial works and services;
non-industrial works and services;
purchased products (purchased for completion);
construction, installation, design and survey, geological exploration, scientific research, etc. work;
goods;
services for the transportation of goods and passengers;
transport - forwarding and loading - unloading operations;
communication services;
providing for a fee for temporary use (temporary possession and use) of its assets under a lease agreement (when this is the subject of the organization’s activities);
provision for a fee of rights arising from patents for inventions, industrial designs and other types of intellectual property (when this is the subject of the organization’s activities);
participation in the authorized capital of other organizations (when this is the subject of the organization’s activities), etc.
When recognized in accounting, the amount of revenue from the sale of goods, products, performance of work, provision of services, etc. is reflected in the credit of account 90 “Sales”, subaccount 90-1 “Revenue” and the debit of account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”.
In organizations engaged in retail trade and keeping records of goods at sales prices, the credit of account 90 “Sales” subaccount 90-1 “Revenue” reflects the sales value of goods sold (in correspondence with the cash and settlement accounts).
Analytical accounting for subaccount 90-1 “Revenue” is maintained for each type of goods sold, products, work performed, services provided, etc. In addition, an enterprise can organize analytical accounting for this account by sales region and other areas necessary for managing the organization.
Sales of products are carried out in accordance with concluded contracts. Depending on the terms of the contract, the transfer of ownership of the product (goods) may occur during the actual transfer (shipment) of the product to the buyer, and the contract may also provide for a different procedure for the transfer of ownership.
In accounting, products are considered sold at the moment of transfer of ownership to the buyer.
For tax purposes, an enterprise can account for revenue either “on shipment” (as ownership of shipped products passes to the buyer) or “on payment” (as payment for sold products is made).
With both methods of accounting for sales for tax purposes, finished products, ownership of which has been transferred to the buyer, are reflected in the accounting records as the debit of account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers” and the credit of account 90 “Sales” subaccount 90-1 “Revenue”. At the same time, the cost of production is written off to the debit of account 90 “Sales” subaccount 90-2 “Cost of sales” from the credit of account 43 “Finished products”. From the amount of revenue, the organization calculates value added tax and excise tax (according to the established list of goods).
When determining revenue for tax purposes “by shipment,” the amount of accrued VAT is reflected in the debit of account 90, subaccount 90-3 “VAT” and the credit of account 68 “Calculations for taxes and fees.” This posting reflects the organization’s VAT debt to the budget, which is then repaid by transferring funds to the budget.
With the “on payment” method of determining revenue for tax purposes, the organization’s debt to the budget arises after the buyer pays for the product. Therefore, after the transfer of ownership of the product to the buyer, organizations reflect the amount of VAT on sold products in the debit of account 90, subaccount 90-3 “VAT” and the credit of account 76 “Settlements with various debtors and creditors”. Received payments for sold products are reflected in the debit of account 51 “Current account” and other cash accounts in correspondence with the credit of account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”. After receipt of payments, organizations that use the “on payment” method of determining revenue for tax purposes reflect the debt to the budget by posting: debit account 76 “Settlements with various debtors and creditors” credit account 68 “Settlements for taxes and fees”.
Thus, the difference in methods for determining revenue for tax purposes is as follows. With the “by shipment” method, the debt to the budget for VAT is registered immediately with one entry, debiting account 90, subaccount 90-3 “VAT” and crediting account 68.
With the “on payment” method, two entries are made for VAT:
1 Debit account 90 subaccount 90-3 - credit account 76 (reflects the amount of VAT on products sold).
2 Debit account 76 - credit account 68 (VAT debt to the budget is reflected).
Instructions
Sold products are products shipped by the company from its territory and paid for by the buyer. Its volume is calculated in kind or monetary terms.
All necessary information for analysis is taken from standard accounting statements: “Profit and Loss Statement” (form No. 2), “Movement of annual products, their shipment and sale” (statement No. 16), accounting data reflected in accounts 40 “Issue products", 43 "Finished Products", 45 "Shipped Products" and 90 "Sales". You can also use regular statistical reporting (for example, form No. 1-p “Report on products industrial enterprise").
Volume of sales products in physical terms is calculated as the sum of units of all shipped and paid products for all periods included in the reporting period. Natural indicators are pieces, kilograms, packages, tons, meters, etc.
Volume of sales products in monetary terms (or value) is determined by the selling price of the product, including value added tax. The measuring units here are rubles (dollars, euros, etc.). Simply put, products sold in monetary terms are the enterprises received for goods shipped to it.
Also the volume of sales products can be determined on the basis of commodity products. To the commodity products refers to fully finished products that have already been transferred to the buyer or are in the warehouse. In this case, the volume of sales products can be calculated as the difference between marketable products and the balance in the warehouse for a specified period.
It should be remembered that only those products are considered sold for which payment has been received to the company’s bank account (or to the cash register). Therefore, the calculation does not include products transferred to the buyer but not yet paid for.
Sources:
- volume of product sales
Determining the volume of produced or sold products is one of the fundamental operations that every economist should be able to do. That is why in economics and financial educational institutions tasks are so common in which it is necessary to find the volume products.
Instructions
Most often, under the expression “volume products» volume produced or sold by the enterprise products for a certain time. It can be expressed in quantitative and monetary terms. To find the volume products in monetary terms, multiply its quantity by the unit price. The calculation becomes somewhat more complicated if the products are not homogeneous, and the price, accordingly, varies depending on the batch. In this case, find the volume of each batch separately and add up the results.
Quite often there is a need for volume products in the so-called. Comparable prices are prices either for a specific year or for a specific date. They can be clearly known and recorded, or the corresponding coefficients can be found, for example, through the level. In the case where you need to find the volume products at comparable prices, the quantity produced should be multiplied products to prices of a certain year, or adjust the volume products at current prices for the necessary .
There are also common situations when you need to find the volume products implemented within a certain period, for example, a quarter, six months or a year. In this case, as a rule, the residues are known products at the beginning and end of a given period. To find the volume products within a certain period of time, to the volume products produced during a given period, for example, a year, add the existing balances products at the beginning of the year and subtract the balances products in warehouses at the end of the year.
The correct calculation of the volume of production ensures rational planning of the work of any production, as well as sales and supply services. In addition, this procedure helps to objectively assess the capacity of an enterprise/organization in physical terms and in monetary terms.
You will need
- - financial statements.
Instructions
Calculate the monetary value of two amounts - finished products at the beginning of the reporting period and at the time of its end. To carry out this operation, borrow indicators from statistical accounting reports, which are compiled by an organization or enterprise for the statistics committee of the region where it is located.
Find the volume of finished products in natural. It is not difficult to standardize such a calculation process. To do this, add up such quantities as finished products released, the number of their outgoing balances, the number of finished products sold and the number of finished products left at the beginning of the reporting period.
Since the above calculation is relative, to obtain a more accurate and correct value, add to the revenue from the sale of manufactured products the difference calculated above by the total amount of production for the reporting period and the balance of manufactured products.
note
The rationality of drawing up a plan for its sales through the existing distribution network, as well as the correctness of expanding this network, depends on the correctness of calculating the volume of finished products in monetary terms.
Helpful advice
The dynamics of changes in the volume of production are monitored according to the growth/decrease graph of the revenue of an enterprise or organization during the reporting period. This schedule is built on the basis of the data specified in Form No. 2 of the financial statements. Information is taken for two reporting years or a longer period.
Sources:
- Analysis of production volume and product sales
- determine production volume
Volume of sales products– perhaps the main indicator of the efficiency of an enterprise. The sales forecast for the next period depends on it, and on it, in turn, the required production volume. Analysis of this indicator allows you to assess the degree of plan implementation, the dynamics of sales growth (sales) and timely identify weaknesses and reserves for increasing output and sales products.
You will need
- Accounting statements of the enterprise
Instructions
Volume of sales products calculated in natural or value (monetary) terms. All necessary information for analysis can be taken from the accounting or statistical reports of the enterprise.
Products sold in physical terms are how many pieces of parts a workshop smelted, how many meters of curtains a garment factory sewed, or how many square meters of housing it built. The main difficulty in calculating the volume of sales products in physical terms lies in a heterogeneous assortment.
Indeed, if a plant produces only one type products, calculation of the volume of sales products comes down to counting the units sold in each period. It is much more difficult if the enterprise produces a wide variety of products. In this case, the calculation of the volume of sales is used products in conditionally natural terms.
Calculation in conditionally natural terms is used to generalize different types of production products. For example, a bottling plant can produce mineral water, lemonade, iced tea, each type of drink in plastic and tin cans, different volumes, etc. Then a certain conditional indicator is introduced, for example, a 0.5 liter bottle of water. All other drinks are measured in terms of this standard bottle.
Volume of sales products can also be calculated in value (or monetary) terms. Products sold in value terms is the total volume products, shipped to customers and paid in full.
After calculating the volume of sales products it is necessary to compare it with planned indicators, as well as with the volume of production products. This analysis will allow you to competently plan the need for resources and production rates products and predict future sales rates.
Sources:
- natural sales volume
In a computer science course, visual, textual, graphical and other types of information are presented in binary code. This is “machine language” - a sequence of zeros and ones. Information volume allows you to compare the amount of binary information included in different media. As an example, you can consider how the volumes of text and graphics are calculated.
Instructions
To calculate the information volume of the text from which , determine the initial data. You should know the number of pages in the book, the average number of lines of text on each page, and the number of whitespace characters in each line of text. Let the book contain 150 pages, 40 lines per page, 60 characters per line.
Find the number of characters in the book: multiply the data from the first step. 150 pages * 40 lines * 60 characters = 360 thousand characters in the book.
To find the information volume of a graphic, also determine the initial data. Let a 10x10 cm image be obtained using a scanner. You need to know the resolution of the device - for example, 600 dpi - and depth. The last one, also for example, you can take 32 bits.
Calculate the total number of points that make up the image. 2360 * 2360 = 5569600 pieces.
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