At the beginning of the 20th century, several directions in psychology emerged, differing from each other in their understanding of the subject of psychology, research methods and a system of basic concepts. In Europe these were Freudianism and Gestalt psychology, in the USA - functionalism, behaviorism and the school of Kurt Lewin. In psychology, new scientific concepts and theoretical directions are being developed, and relevant empirical research is being conducted. The most famous of them are: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and depth psychology.
Behaviorism
At this time, its leading direction in American psychology emerged - behaviorism (from the English “behavior” - behavior). Behaviorism recognized behavior and behavioral reactions as the only object of psychological study. Consciousness, as a phenomenon that cannot be observed, was excluded from the sphere of behaviorist psychology. Only actual behavior was studied. This fit well with the pragmatic direction of all American science at that time. The founder of behaviorism (behavioral psychology) is considered to be the American psychologist John Watson (1878-1958). He viewed psychology as a theory of behavior, excluding subjective phenomena and human consciousness from the study. Watson replaced the concepts of images, thoughts, ideas, and feelings with concepts of muscular and secretory reactions, reduced behavior to external adaptive acts, and denied consciousness as a special form of regulation of behavior. Thanks to behaviorism, objective methods of studying the psyche have become widespread. The construction of scientific psychology by behaviorists was guided by the natural sciences.
One of the founders of behaviorism was E. Thorndike (1874-1949), who presented extensive experimental material in his doctoral dissertation “Animal Intelligence. Experimental study of associative processes." His first work, “The Mind of Animals” (1898), became an important milestone towards the introduction of an objective method in the study of the learning process. To do this, I used so-called “problem” boxes. He placed experimental animals (cats, dogs, lower apes) in “problem boxes” - experimental devices of varying degrees of complexity, and recorded the nature of their motor reactions aimed at getting out of the box and receiving reinforcement. An animal placed in a box could get out of it, or receive feeding, only by activating a special device - by pressing a spring, pulling a loop, etc. Initially, the animal made many movements, rushing in different directions, scratching the box, etc., until one of the movements accidentally turned out to be successful for it. “Trial, error and random success” - this was the conclusion adopted by the scientist for all types of behavior of both animals and humans. E. Thorndike's discoveries were interpreted as laws of skill formation. Thus, E. Thorndike studied the laws of intelligence in animals as learning. At the same time, intelligence meant the body’s development of a “formula” for real actions that would allow one to successfully cope with a problematic situation. A “probabilistic style of thinking” was introduced: in the organic world, only those who manage, through “trial and error,” to select the most advantageous of many possible options for reacting to the environment survive.
Behaviorism considered the complex behavior of animals and humans as a set of motor reactions (R) in response to external influences - stimuli (S). S→R – this is the formula of behaviorism. The achievement of behaviorism was the development of experimental techniques based on the control of external influences and the body's response to these influences. According to behaviorism, a person at birth has a certain number of innate patterns of behavior, on top of which more complex forms are built - “behavior regulators”. Successful reactions are consolidated and tend to be reproduced in the future. The consolidation of reactions occurs according to the “law of exercises” - as a result of repeated repetition, they become automated. American behaviorists draw a parallel between the periods of child development and the supposed eras of development of primitive society.
Within the framework of behaviorism, many patterns of skill development have been established. But the most important components of action were ignored - motivation and mental image of action as an indicative basis for its implementation. The social factor was completely excluded from psychology. The brain was viewed as a “black box”.
The ideas of behaviorism were developed in the works of other American psychologists - E. Tolman and K. Hull. Edward Tolman (1886-1959) developed a concept in which he tried to combine the ideas of behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and Freudianism. Tolman turned the “stimulus-response” behavior pattern into a holistic act, which included “intermediate variables” as a mediating link: motive, goal, cognitive structures.
Clark Hull (1884-1952) is also considered a classic of neobehaviorism. He also advocated the need to introduce into the stimulus-response explanation of behavior factors that mediate the motor response to a stimulus. Hull tried to approach the analysis of behavior strictly mathematically. The modern representative of behaviorism is the American psychologist Burkhus Skinner (b. 1904). He believes that psychology should limit itself to describing externally observable regular connections between stimuli, reactions and reinforcement of these reactions. Skinner is known as the author of the concept of “operant” (from the word “operation”) learning, which explains the mechanisms of formation of new experience. On this basis, he develops ways to control human behavior. However, in the 50s of the 20th century, behaviorism was generally discredited. The main reason for this was the anti-mentalism of behaviorists, their inattention to the inner mental world of man.
Gestalt psychology
Another influential concept in 20th century psychology was Gestalt psychology. This direction appeared in Germany. In 1912, in Frankfurt am Main, under the leadership of M. Wertheimer (1880-1943), a new psychological school arose - Gestalt psychology (from the German “gestalt” - form, structure). It included famous psychologists V. Köhler (1887-1967) and K. Koffka (1886-1941). In M. Wertheimer's experiments on perception, it was established that in the composition of consciousness there are integral formations (gestalts) that cannot be decomposed into sensory primary elements, i.e. it was postulated that mental images are not complexes of sensations. German scientists in their psychological theory relied on the idea of the integrity of mental phenomena. The scientific principle was central to their research. Natural sciences served as a model.
Max Werheimer (1880-1943) criticized the associative direction in psychology and experimentally proved that consciousness is built from integral images (gestalts), indecomposable into individual sensory elements.
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) was also one of the founders of Gestal psychology and gave a fundamental analysis and presentation of this direction. At the same time, he was the first among Gestal psychologists to address the problems of child development.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) believed that psychological knowledge should be modeled on physical knowledge, since the processes in consciousness and the body are in one-to-one correspondence. Guided by this idea, he extended the concept of Gestalt to the brain. In experiments on animals, Köller proved the role of insight (seeing the situation as a whole) in the successful solution of intellectual problems. The ideas of Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) were also close to Gestal psychology. He is best known as the author of the concept of a dynamic system of behavior - the “field” theory. By “field” he understood a holistic “living space”, described by a geometric model, in which human activity unfolds.
The progressive significance of Gestalt psychology consisted in its overcoming of “atomism” in psychology - the idea that images of consciousness are built from bricks of sensations. There is a certain initial orderliness of sensory-intellectual structures. Max Wertheimer became an adherent of the active essence of consciousness: consciousness is active, through certain actions it builds its images of the external world, relying on initially existing structures - gestalts.
In the research of Gestal psychologists, more than a hundred patterns of visual perception were discovered, among which the most famous are: “apperception” (the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person’s mental activity), the interaction of “figure and background”, “integrity” and “structurality” of perception, “pregnancy” (the desire for simplicity and orderliness of human perception), “constancy” of perception (constancy of the image of an object despite changes in the conditions of its perception), “proximity” (the tendency to combine elements adjacent in time and space), “closure, completion” (tendency to fill in the gaps between the elements of the perceived figure).
Adaptive forms of behavior were explained by the universal concept of “insight” (from the English “insight” - insight) - a sudden grasp of relationships when solving problematic problems. But, unfortunately, the Gestaltists tried to explain consciousness based on itself.
Depth psychology as a direction of psychology of the 20th century, it includes a number of concepts based on the position of the leading role of unconscious, irrational, instinctive processes and motivations. This direction includes 3. Freud, who was already discussed above, as well as neo-Freudians A. Adler, K. Jung. A characteristic feature of depth psychology was its focus on solving practical problems. In 1895, the head of the department of nervous diseases at the University of Vienna, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), working on the “Draft Program for Scientific Psychology,” came to the need to theoretically comprehend his experience as a neurologist, who did not fit into the framework of the traditional interpretation of consciousness. Freud's psychoanalysis has influenced, either explicitly or implicitly, almost all modern psychological theories.
Orthodox psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, i.e. precisely during the period of breaking down the traditional ideas about the psyche and mental processes of that time. The dominant methodological principle in psychology and medicine reflected the localizationist approach of von Virchow, i.e. search for a specific “gender” corresponding to any painful phenomenon. The emergence of new trends in psychology, sociology and philosophy exposed the narrow, primitive interpretation of the cause-and-effect relationships of the localizationist approach. The problem of unconscious (unconscious) mental processes has become the subject of close attention of researchers.
Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler (1870-1937) created a scientific school called “individual psychology.” In his teaching, he defended the principles of the internal unity of the mental life of the individual and believed that there is no hard boundary between consciousness and the unconscious. The main driving forces of personal development, according to Adler, are the desire for excellence, success, perfection, as well as a sense of community, expressed in the willingness to cooperate with other people to achieve common goals.
Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a follower of Freud, but later moved away from Freudianism. He argued that in addition to the individual subconscious, there is also a collective unconscious as the inherited experience of previous generations. His system of psychological knowledge was called “analytical psychology.”
The German-American psychologist Erich Fromm (1900-1980) is also included in the psychoanalytic direction in psychology. He is considered the most socially oriented of all psychoanalysts, since for him the social environment is not just a condition, but the most important factor in personality development. Fromm emphasized that the ideas of Marx and Freud were of greatest importance to him, which he wanted to combine in his theory. Fromm's works laid the foundations for a movement in Western psychology called Freudo-Marxism. In his works, he tried to combine Freud's ideas not only with Marx, but also with Adler and humanistic psychology.
An important role in the development of psychological knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century belonged to Russian scientists, although they had no obvious attraction to any psychological schools. Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky (1874-1917) worked a lot on the problems of studying human character, and was one of the first to conduct personality research in natural conditions of activity.
Russian psychologist Nikolai Nikolaevich Lange (1858-1921) became one of the leaders of experimental psychology in Russia. He developed on an experimental basis the concept of staged perception and the motor theory of attention.
A particularly noticeable role in the history of Russian psychology was played by Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov (1862-1936). He is best known as the founder of the first and oldest psychological institute in Russia (in 1912). Chelpanov owns works on the perception of space and time, as well as works on experimental psychology.
The outstanding direction of psychology of the 20th century is geneticpsychology. Its founder is considered to be the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). He created the Geneva School of Genetic Psychology, which studied the mental development of the child, the origin of intelligence, and the formation in the child of such fundamental concepts as space, time, and causality. Piaget and his collaborators were interested in the features of children's logic and the mechanisms of child cognitive activity.
In the middle of the 20th century, a new direction appeared - humanisticpsychology. “Humanistic psychology” is a collective concept that covers a number of quite different schools, directions, movements and approaches. One of the founders is considered to be the American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902-1987). He abandoned the career of a priest, for which he had been preparing since his youth, and became interested in psychology. Later he worked as a practicing psychologist and professor at the university. In his theory of personality, Rogers describes a certain system of concepts that characterize a person’s ideas about himself and his loved ones. The most important place in it is occupied by the “I” concept. In this regard, therapy is also described that helps a person change himself and his relationships with others. The idea of the value and uniqueness of the human person became central to Rogers, as well as to other representatives of humanistic psychology. His discoveries are associated not only with a new look at a person’s self-actualization and self-esteem, but also with his approach to psychocorrection. He believed that the psychotherapist should not impose his opinion on the patient, but should lead him to the right decision, which the patient makes independently. Thus, the foundations of non-directive psychotherapy were created.
Another outstanding American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) is also considered a representative of humanistic psychology. He came to the conclusion that it was necessary to form a third psychological direction, an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. His own theory had a key concept - “self-actualization”, one of the central concepts in the concept of humanistic psychology. The goal of personal development is the desire for growth, for self-actualization, while stopping personal growth is death for a person as an individual, for his “self.”
However, the views of the founders of humanistic psychology are characterized by significant differences. For example, Goldstein, Maslow and Rogers say that a person is inherent in a certain internal strength - a tendency towards self-actualization, directing his development towards the most complete disclosure, unfolding of the possibilities, strengths and abilities inherent in him. This is, as it were, the main idea of the leading humanistic approach to personality. But within the same movement there are authors, in particular such as Rollo May, Alwyn Marer, Ronald Lang, who belong to the so-called “existential” branch in humanistic psychology. They believe that there are no such forces, and the direction of human development is determined solely by the choices he makes. This contrast is one of perhaps the most key contrasts, because this difference of views, which Rowan drew attention to, is one of the main criteria by which one can distinguish "existential" direction within the framework of humanistic psychology from a direction that can be conventionally designated by the word “ person-centered".
What we know about this so-called “existential psychology” is that a prominent representative of existential psychology is Viktor Frankl, the author of the psychotherapeutic model “logotherapy.” The philosophical works of Martin Buber were published, including his now classic book “I and You,” which, although not strictly psychological, serves as one of the main “scriptures” for existential psychologists, and the equally fundamental philosophical book of P. Tillich "Courage to be." Finally, one of the first books by Rollo May is a brilliant manual on psychological counseling, written from the perspective of an existential approach to man. When talking about what the direction of existential psychology is, they most often begin to refer to existential philosophy - to Heidegger, Jaspers, Sartre and others. However, existential psychology is a fairly independent layer of materials, completely different from existential philosophy and having its own theoretical traditions, that is, the theoretical basis for existential psychotherapy is not the philosophy of existentialism, but extensive theoretical developments within the framework of psychology.
In the early 60s of the 20th century, scientific psychology experienced an amazingly rapid change in the interests and theoretical orientation of Western experimental psychology. A new direction has emerged - cognitive psychology. The term "cognitive" signified an increased interest in the study of cognitive (cognitive) processes. This was due to the intensive development of cybernetics, mathematical modeling, and the advent of electronic computers (computers). Cognitive processes were considered by analogy with a computer as processes of information processing. One of the leaders of the new direction was the American psychologist Ulrich Neisser. In Neisser's research, human cognition of the surrounding world, carried out in the process of perception, memory, imagination, thinking, is considered as an active process of assimilation of information by the internal structures of experience. Cognitive psychology still remains the most influential area of research in world psychological science.
1.1. Behaviorism
1.2. Psychodynamic approach
1.3. Cognitive approach
1.4. Humanistic approach
1.5. Psychogenetic approach
1.1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism defined the face of American psychology of the century. Its founder, John Watson (1878-1958), formulated the credo of behaviorism: “The subject of psychology is behavior.” Hence the name - from the English behavior - behavior (behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology). Analysis of behavior must be strictly objective and limited to externally observable reactions (everything that cannot be objectively registered cannot be studied, that is, a person’s thoughts and consciousness cannot be studied, they cannot be measured or registered). Everything that happens inside a person is impossible to study, i.e. a person acts as a “black box”. Only reactions, external actions of a person and those stimuli and situations that determine these reactions can be objectively studied and recorded. And the task of psychology is to determine a probable stimulus based on the reaction, and to predict a certain reaction based on the stimulus.
In the concept of behaviorism, a person is understood primarily as a reacting, acting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, and behavior. By changing incentives and reinforcements, you can program a person to the desired behavior.
1.2. Psychodynamic approach
At the beginning of the 20th century. a direction arose in psychology psychoanalysis, or Freudianism, which determined the development of the psychodynamic approach. 3. Freud introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious motivation, defense mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality V her, the influence of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. However, his closest students came to the conclusion that it is not primarily sexual desires, but a feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed universal human experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.
The psychoanalytic direction has paid increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Thus, the psychodynamic approach also included the following psychoanalytic concepts: individual psychology of A. Adler; analytical psychology of K. Jung; ego psychology of E. Erikson and others.
1.3. Cognitive approach
The word "cognitive" comes from the Latin verb - to know. Proponents of this approach argue that a person is not a machine, blindly and mechanically reacting to internal factors or to events in the external world; on the contrary, the human mind is capable of more: analyzing information about reality, making comparisons, making decisions, solving problems that confront it every minute.
The cognitive perspective emphasizes the influence of intellectual or thought processes on human behavior.
1.4. Humanistic approach
Humanistic psychology- its most prominent representatives G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, K. Rogers, A. Maslow consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.
The goal of such a person is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-realization, self-actualization, the growth of the constructive principle of the human “I”. A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl, the author of the concept of logotherapy, notes, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, and is struck by severe failures.
1.5. Psychogenetic approach
This approach is very interesting from the point of view of Dr. Champion Kurt Teutsch. His concept that the genetic code, even before a person is born, determines much of his life's prospects and basic patterns of behavior is gradually gaining acceptance in scientific circles. DNA molecules carry not only the genetic code of the inherited biological and physiological characteristics of the body, predispositions to certain diseases, but also the genetic code that determines patterns of behavior, predisposition to certain problems, events, and life difficulties. Along with information about appearance, DNA stores information about the experiences and life roles of ancestors. Each person has their own unique Main Internal Direction (IOD)- a combination of genetic, unconscious and conscious factors according to which he moves through life, experiences and plays his roles, regardless of his conscious reactions and interpretations.
Conscious and unconscious thoughts in the physical plane are energy radiation, an energy wave (as physicists suggest, a thought is an energy wave of virtual photons- smallest nuclear particles). Brain radiation has no restrictions in time and space. The energy waves of each person's thoughts have their own specific amplitude, intensity, and frequency range. Mental interaction occurs between people at an unconscious level, since the information and energy radiation of one person’s thoughts can penetrate and have some influence on the unconscious part of the psyche of another person.
Thus, both conscious and unconscious desires, beliefs, experiences, thoughts of a person, in addition to the subjective internal state, always receive objective expression in different forms: 1 - energy radiation-wave; 2 - human actions; 3 - a person can express conscious thoughts and desires externally and through words; 4 - ultimately, thoughts can be expressed externally and through objects, for example, the designer’s thought is ultimately embodied, objectified in a specific object, product, invention.
1. Psychology- academic and applied science of behavior and mental processes.
The very name of the subject, translated from ancient Greek, means “psyche” - soul, “logos” - science, teaching, that is, “science of the soul”.
The subject of the study of psychology is, first of all, the psyche of humans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena. With the help of some, such as sensations and perception, attention and memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate his communication with people and directly control his actions and actions. They are called mental properties and states of the individual (these include needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness). In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.
The main tasks of psychology are:
1) qualitative study of mental phenomena;
2) analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena;
3) study of the physiological mechanisms of mental phenomena;
4) promoting the introduction of psychological knowledge into the practice of people’s lives and activities.
Principles of Psychology:
The principle of determinism. The psyche and its highest form - consciousness - develop under the influence of the external environment, primarily social; human consciousness arises only in human society and exists as long as people exist;
The principle of the unity of the psyche, consciousness and activity. Labor activity contributed to the emergence and development of human consciousness. Consciousness determines activity; thanks to consciousness, a person draws up a plan of activity, selects means of implementation, thinks about the expected result; consciousness determines the purposefulness of activity. Consciousness is determined by activity purposefully;
The principle of development of the psyche, consciousness in activity. A person is born with natural inclinations. They may remain undeveloped if the child is not included in appropriate activities.
Personal approach to the study of the human psyche. People differ in their natural inclinations, temperament, strength of the nervous system, and personal character: needs, motives, interests, views. All this must be taken into account when studying a specific person.
The principle of the historical approach to the study of the human psyche. Study of human development in phylogenesis (history of the human race).
The place of psychology in the system of sciences is determined by the tasks it solves, among which is the desire to understand the essence and patterns of mental phenomena, learn to manage them, apply the acquired knowledge in practice, and create a theoretical basis for psychological services.
When studying psychological phenomena, researchers reveal the essence of the very process of reflection of objective reality in the human brain, study the mechanisms of regulation of human actions, the development of mental activity and the formation of mental properties of the individual.
2. Modern psychology is a very extensive system of scientific disciplines, at different stages of formation and associated with various areas of practice. Usually the main principle of classification of branches of psychology is considered to be the principle of development of the psyche in activity. On this basis, the following branches of psychology are distinguished.
Labor psychology studies the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, the psychological aspects of the scientific organization of labor. It has a number of sections, which are at the same time independent branches of psychological science: engineering psychology, aviation psychology, space psychology.
Pedagogical psychology examines the psychological patterns of human training and education. Its sections include: psychology of education, psychology of education, teacher psychology and psychology of educational work with abnormal children.
Medical psychology studies the psychological aspects of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior.
Legal psychology examines psychological issues related to the implementation of the legal system. It also has a number of branches: forensic psychology, criminal psychology, correctional labor psychology.
Military psychology explores human behavior in combat conditions, psychological aspects of relationships between superiors and subordinates, methods of psychological propaganda and counter-propaganda, etc.
The classification of branches of psychology can be based on the psychological aspects of development. On this basis, a number of its industries are identified in which the development principle is implemented:
- age-related psychology studies the ontogenesis of various mental processes and psychological qualities of the personality of a developing person; it has a number of branches: child psychology, adolescent psychology, adult psychology and gerontopsychology;
- psychology of abnormal development, or special psychology, branches into oligophrenopsychology, deaf psychology, typhlopsychology;
- comparative psychology explores the phylogenetic forms of mental life.
The classification of branches of psychology can be based on the psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society. In this case, another series of branches of psychological science will be identified, united by the concept "social Psychology".
It should be noted that a special place among other branches of psychology is occupied by the so-called general psychology. The tasks of general psychology include the development of problems in the methodology and history of psychology, theory and methods of studying the most general laws of the emergence, development and existence of mental phenomena. She studies cognitive and practical activities. The results of research in the field of general psychology are the fundamental basis for the development of all branches and sections of psychological science.
The course of general psychology provides a scientific understanding of the general theoretical principles and most important methods of psychology, and characterizes the basic scientific concepts of psychology. For convenience of consideration, these concepts are combined into three main categories: mental processes, mental states, mental properties or personality traits.
3. In its development, psychology went through several stages.
1 – pre-scientific period ends in the YII-YI centuries. BC. During this period, ideas about the soul were based on numerous myths and legends, on fairy tales and primitive religious beliefs that connected the soul with certain living beings (totems). There was no specific disclosure of the contents and functions of the soul. There were no methods for studying the soul.
2 – scientific (philosophical) the period begins at the turn of the YII-YI centuries BC. and ends with the end of the XYIII - beginning of the XIX centuries. Psychology during this period developed within the framework of philosophy, which is why it is conventionally called the philosophical period. It ends with the emergence of the first psychological school (associationism) and the definition of the actual psychological terminology, different from philosophical. This period is heterogeneous, and over more than 20 centuries psychology has undergone significant changes. In the scientific period, there are three independent stages in the development of psychology:
The era of ancient psychology of the 2nd century. BC. – III century AD The soul was understood as the fundamental principle of the body, the main building block from which everything that exists is composed.
The Middle Ages IY - XY centuries AD. This stage is characterized by the emergence of the actual psychological method - introspection. The main achievements include the development of psychophysical research and the first works on mass psychology
Renaissance and New Age XY – XYII centuries. Psychology was freed from the dictates of theology. Science sought to become objective, rational, and not sacred, i.e. based on evidence, on reason, not on faith. The main method of research at this time was introspection and partly logic. The main achievements are: the development of a rationalistic approach to the psyche, the emergence of the first theories of emotions and the theory of reflex, an attempt to introduce the psychology of the unconscious into the subject.
3 – associationistic psychology end of XYIII mid-XIX centuries. Cognitive processes became the subject of psychology. Behavior, emotions, personality and its development were not included in the subject. At first, such a restriction also had a positive meaning, because gave psychology the opportunity to get rid of sacredness and become an experimental science. This allowed it to stand out as an independent science, separating its subject from the subject of philosophy. On the other hand, this approach began to hinder the development of psychology, so by the middle of the 19th century. it has been revised. The research methods of this period are introspection, logic, and the beginning of using the methods of natural sciences (trial and error). The main achievements are the emergence of the first psychological school, new approaches to the subject and methods of psychology, the concept of the adaptive function of the psyche, the development of the theory of reflex, the natural science approach to the study of the psyche, and the further development of the concepts of the unconscious.
4 – experimental psychology mid-19th early 20th century The most important stage in the development of psychology is associated with the emergence of the experimental laboratory of V. Wundt, who made psychology not only an independent, but also an objective, experimental science.
The subject of psychology included elements of the psyche identified with consciousness, their connections and laws. The research methods were: experimental method, introspection and analysis of the results of creative activity, both of an individual and of the people as a whole, the first tests.
5 – methodological crisis and the division of psychology into separate schools in the 10th - 30th years of the twentieth century. Each school had its own subject and its own method of studying what this school understood by the psyche.
Depth psychology - deep structures of the psyche, method - psychoanalysis and projective techniques;
Behaviorism - behavior, method - experimental study of the learning process, the formation of a connection between stimulus and response;
Gestalt psychology - mental structures, method - study of cognitive processes and needs;
Soviet psychology - higher mental functions, instrumental method
The main achievements are considered to be the emergence of the first concepts of personality, theories of consciousness, theories of learning, and creative thinking. The emergence of the first experimental studies of personality.
6 – further development of psychological schools 40 - 60s of the twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century. new schools and directions emerge: humanistic, existential (the subject is the inner essence of the individual); genetic and cognitive (subject - cognitive processes, development of intelligence and stages of information processing). Research methods can be considered questionnaires, new experimental methods for studying intelligence. The main achievements are the further development of theoretical concepts in line with the main problems of psychology, the development and improvement of psychotherapeutic technologies. Those. we can say that from the middle of the twentieth century. psychology has entered the modern stage of its development:
7 – modern psychology 60s – beginning of the 21st century. The subject of psychology is now developing within the framework of individual psychological schools. Methods for experimental research of the psyche are being improved, and various diagnostic techniques are appearing. The stage is characterized by the emergence of a tendency towards unification and synthesis of the most significant achievements of individual schools.
1. Behaviorism, 1913 Watson stimulus-response (to study people from the perspective of behavior)
2. Gestalt psychology(from German gestalt - image, form) - a movement that arose in Germany in the 20s. XX century. The founders of Gestalt psychology are M. Wertheimer (1880 - 1943) and W. Köhler (1887 - 1967), who laid the foundation for research into the psyche as an integral dynamic formation (similar to the concept of a “physical field”), which reproduces the situation in integral mental images. The principle of solving problems (situationally practical or cognitive) by a person is insight (sudden, “insight” that cannot be deduced from past experience, understanding of the structure as a whole), represented by a method of holistic comprehension of the world from indecomposable sensory elements. The “Gestalt” nature of a person’s psyche was understood as the predominance of its integrity over the elementary nature of mental perception. Therefore, the psyche has the advantage of a spontaneous and sometimes unconscious assessment of the situation, which forces the person to act in accordance with it.
3. Psychoanalytic concepts of personality is a group of theories created by the German psychologist and psychiatrist S. Freud (1856 – 1939), which was further developed in many teachings (“individual psychology” by A. Adler (1870 – 1937), “analytical psychology” by C. Jung (1875 – 1961 ), “egopsychology” by Anna Freud, E. Erikson, etc.). The essence of Freud's psychoanalytic concept lies in the hypothesis he put forward of the existence of the most important in terms of significance and pressing in terms of volume of the personal substructure of the psyche - unconscious. It is the latter that determines the psyche of the individual and most seriously influences consciousness. “Consciousness is the tip of the iceberg, the unconscious is everything else,” wrote S. Freud. The structure of the personality psyche includes three substructures, interconnected and interacting with each other: “It” (Id), “I” (Ego), “Super-I” (Super-Ego). “It” – “unconscious” – is a substructure, the mental processes of which proceed on the basis of unconscious deep instinctive drives, impulses, and biological needs. “It” is a product of biological life inherited by man from animal ancestors, on the one hand, and the result of established relationships with the “I” and “Super-I”, on the other.
4. Transactional-analytical concept of personality (E. Bern) is an original direction that continues the development of the ideas of psychoanalysis in the field of interpersonal relationships and internal transactions (interactions) of an individual’s ego states. Let us dwell on the structural analysis of ego states; you can get acquainted with the theory in more detail by reading the source. Structural analysis of ego states is based on a hypothesis about the psychological structure of personality, which includes three ego states: child, adult, parent. “Child” – the psyche of “pleasure”. Psychological extension from the bottom up.
5. "Trait Theory" personality was created by the American psychologist G. Allport (1897 –1967). R. Cattell, G. J. Eysenck, and R. Meili worked seriously in this direction. According to this concept, personality is an integral system of mental traits independent from each other. The complete set of such independent personality traits is the subject of the search for the concept of “traits”. The main research method is survey and testing.
6. Humanistic concept of personality presented in the works of American psychologists C.R. Rogers (1902 - 1987) and A.H. Maslow (1908 - 1970). Personality in this concept is described in terms of “meaning of life”, “values”, “ideals”, “motives”, “realization of goals”, “self-actualization” and others that have a humanistic meaning. Let us note only the developments of motivation (Maslow) and the “I-concept” (Rogers) that are most important for humanistic psychology. Personal development is the progressive formation of needs on the path of self-realization. If the development of personality is blocked at the level of basic needs, then they become leading for it. Therefore, social conditions and the material life of an individual predetermine the individual’s capabilities for self-actualization (full realization of personal inclinations and predispositions).
7. "Activity theory" in domestic psychology. S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontyev, K.A. Abulkhanov-Slavskaya, A.V. Brushlinsky. This theory has a number of common features with other theories (behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, etc.). According to the “activity theory,” the biological inheritance of personality traits is denied. The main source of personality development, according to this theory, is activity. Activity is understood as a complex dynamic system of interaction between a subject (an active person) and the world (with society), in the process of which personality properties are formed - believed A.N. Leontiev. The formed personality (internal) subsequently becomes a mediating link through which the external influences the person (S.L. Rubinstein). Representatives of the activity approach believe that personality is formed throughout life to the extent that a person is involved in social activity (“a personality is worth as much as he can do something, create something”). The main place in the structure of personality is occupied by consciousness. The development of personality consciousness in ontogenesis is also associated with activity and communication. The unconscious occurs only in the case of automated operations.
MAIN FACTORS OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
To analyze the emergence and development of personality traits, we will divide the factors that influence the formation of personality into the following types: 1) biological heredity; 2) physical environment; 3) culture; 4) group experience; 5) unique individual experience. Let us analyze the influence of these factors on personality. These factors are fully manifested in the process of socialization of the individual.
Help and correction. The term “personal development” (personal growth) means the formation of socially significant personal qualities and the elimination of psychological conditions that impede this. It is possible through personal growth trainings, through communication trainings, etc. Psychotherapy is good here (assistance in the process of formation and personal growth) and psychological counseling (assistance in orientation among alternatives to a possible solution; counseling is purely informational, orientational, and also aimed at changing the individual’s attitude towards himself and his life situation. Counseling more often It is generally used in the event of existential crises, conflicts, family or professional problems.).
Psychological correction is a directed psychological impact on a person in order to ensure its full development and functioning (which means that diagnostics must first be carried out, and then correction). PC is based on the definition of understanding “norm and pathology”; mb interdisciplinary approach.
Two approaches:
Psychometric
1. Psycholexical - questionnaire (Big 5 factors - extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism (emotional stability), openness to experience - McCrae-Costa "Magnificent Five" questionnaire)
2. Diagnosis of personality traits (Ketell-16 factor, Eysenck)
3. Typological approach (Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory or MMPI, Lichko questionnaire, Leonhard-Smishek questionnaire. The 10 types of accentuated personalities identified by Leonhard are divided into two groups: character accentuations (demonstrative, pedantic, stuck, excitable) and temperament accentuations (hyperthymic, dysthymic, anxious-fearful, cyclothymic, affective, emotive).
The test is intended to identify the accentuated properties of character and temperament of adolescents, young adults and adults. The characterological test of Shmishek is suitable for taking into account character accentuations in the process of training, professional selection, psychological counseling, and career guidance.)
Projective(drawings, stories)
Motivational mental formations. Age-related development of a person’s motivational sphere. Basic concepts of motivation in the historical and psychological aspect. Deviations in the human motivational sphere. Diagnosis of the motivational sphere; participation of a psychologist in the implementation of a person’s basic life orientations.
This is a mental formation that reveals the reasons for a person’s behavior and directs his activity.
Motivation is based on the physiology of the body.
Animals have situational activity (why do I need this for survival), humans also have supra-situational activity (why do I need this).
Functions: activating, stimulating, goal-setting.
Components of motivation:
Needs- that which underlies the motive, without which a person cannot function, the result of the absence of something perceived as good.
Motive– synthesis of external and internal reasons that motivate and direct human activity.
Attraction- the primary emotional manifestation of a person’s need for something, an impulse that has not yet been mediated by conscious goal setting.
Wish - perceived need ,
Interests- the form of manifestation of cognitive need, determines the orientation of the individual towards understanding the goals of the activity due to a deeper orientation in the situation,
Tendencies- manifestation of a need for something. are doing
Installation– the state of a person’s psychological readiness to react in a certain way to external influences
Motivation Concepts:
The first explosion of interest in organizational management was noted in 1911 with the publication of Frederick W. Taylor's book “The Principles of Scientific Management,” traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of management as a science and an independent field of study.
Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was not a research scientist. He was a practical worker, first a laborer, then an engineer and chief engineer of a steel company.
Taylor’s system acquired its first clear outlines in 1903 in his work “Factory Management” and was further developed in the book “Principles of Scientific Management.” In it, Taylor formulated a number of postulates, which later became known as “Taylorism.”
Taylorism is based on four scientific principles (rules of management):
1. Creation of a scientific foundation that replaces old, purely practical methods of work, scientific research of each individual type of work activity.
2. Selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their professional selection and vocational training.
3. Cooperation between the enterprise administration and workers in the practical implementation of scientific labor organization.
4. Equal and fair distribution of duties and responsibilities between workers and managers.
As examples, Taylor in his book “Principles of Scientific Management” cites experiments conducted by him and his colleagues in various areas of production.
A textbook example is the transportation of cast iron in ingots.
Taylor and his students measured the time spent on work, selected hardy workers, and allocated time between work and breaks. This led to the fact that the daily output rate tripled, workers became less tired, and their daily wages increased by 60%.
A prominent follower of Taylor was Henry Ford (1863-1947), the founder of the American automobile industry, who, although not a scientist, developed a theory called Fordism, reflected in his books My Life, My Achievements and Today and Tomorrow. The main provisions of this theory are as follows:
pay each worker highly and ensure that he works all 48 hours a week, but no more;
ensure the best condition of all cars, their absolute cleanliness, teach people to respect others and themselves.
G. Munsterberg (1863-1916), who taught at Harvard University in the USA. In his work “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency,” which became widely known throughout the world, he formulated the basic principles according to which people should be selected for leadership positions. Münsterberg was the founder of psychotechnics (personnel selection, ability testing, compatibility of people in the labor process, etc.).
Particular merit in the creation of the theory and practice of human relations belongs to the psychologist Elton Mayo (1880-1949), who conducted a series of experiments, called the “Hawthorne experiments”, in the city of Hawthorne, near Chicago, at the enterprises of the Western Electric company, which continued from 1927 th to 1939. The results of the experiments led to the publication of Elton Mayo's work, The Problems of Man in Industrial Society, published in 1946.
The Hawthorne experiments culminated in the realization that human factors, especially social interaction and group behavior, influence individual productivity.
Studying the influence of various factors (working conditions and organization, wages, interpersonal relationships and leadership style) on increasing labor productivity in an industrial enterprise, Mayo concluded that the human factor plays a special role in production.
Heckhausen.
Behavior is described as being motivated “from within” (intrinsically) or “externally” (extrinsically). The author defines motive as a construct of thinking, i.e. theoretical construction. Motives are not directly observable and therefore cannot be stated as facts of reality. They are only conditional, facilitating understanding, auxiliary constructs of our thinking, inserted into the scheme of explanation of reality between the observed initial circumstances and subsequent acts of behavior.
Uznadze.
Attitude is a state of mental readiness to react in a certain way to outside influence.
Everyone has their own needs, and accordingly, everyone has different attitudes towards this or that activity. The meaning of motivation lies precisely in this: exactly such an action is sought and found that corresponds to the basic, fixed in life attitude of the individual. When a subject finds this type of behavior, he especially experiences it, feeling drawn to it, experiencing readiness to perform it. This is exactly the experience that appears during the act of decision in the form of a specific experience, which we described above under the name “I really want.” This experience clearly indicates that the subject has created a set of certain behavior: the act of decision has been completed, and now the question concerns its implementation.
Maslow.
Hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, belonging and love, respect, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization. The causes of psychological difficulties are dissatisfaction of certain needs.
Obukhovsky.
Five types of needs: for self-preservation, for the preservation of the species, indicative (selective activity), for emotional contact with other people, for the meaning of life.
Ilyin.
Separates the needs of the body and the needs of the individual; they differ in the degree of awareness: physiological needs are often not realized. Some of the body’s needs (for example, certain minerals) are not recognized and do not turn into the needs of the individual. He divides needs into the needs of the body (and there are not yet conscious and conscious-biological) and the needs of the individual (conscious-social).
V. Vroom's theory of expectations.
The theory of expectations is based on the position that the presence of an active need is not the only and necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal. Analyzing the motivation of work, the expectancy theory identifies three important relationships: labor costs - results; results - reward and valence (satisfaction with this reward).
Locke's goal theory of motivation.
Behavior is directed and guided by goals, and this is the true significance of the goal setting process in terms of motivation and increasing effectiveness and productivity. Goals thus have the following motivational content:
· concentrate attention and efforts on certain areas;
· serve as standards against which the results are compared;
· are the basis for assessing resource costs;
· can influence the structure and procedures of organizational systems;
· reflect the motives and characteristics of both individuals and organizations.
In addition, the process of goal setting itself can serve as a motivating tool, forming an orientation toward achieving results. An individual's intention to work to achieve a goal is an important source of his work motivation.
S. Adams' theory of justice.
People subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then compare it with the rewards of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and unfairness in the receipt of rewards, e.g. The employee believes that his colleague received more compensation for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. As a result, to increase this employee’s motivation to work, it is necessary to relieve the tension that has arisen and to restore justice, eliminate the imbalance that has arisen.
F. Herzberg's two-factor theory (Motivational-hygienic).
TO first group factors include those external to work (normal working conditions, sufficient wages, company and administration policies, interpersonal relationships with superiors, colleagues and subordinates, the degree of direct control over work, status). Co. second group include internal factors inherent in the work (success, promotion, recognition and approval of work results). This group of factors suggests that each individual can work motivated when he sees a goal and believes it is possible to achieve it.
K. Levin known for his work in the areas of personality and interpersonal relationships.
He believed that the behavior of an individual can only be understood based on the holistic situation in which this individual finds himself.
The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people operating in it.
The merit of Gestalt psychology is that it found modern approaches to the study of psychological problems, but the problems that caused the crisis were never fully resolved.
Psychoanalysis was developed by the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist S. Freud, which is why it is sometimes called “Freudianism.”
Founding a scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: insight into the essence of the human soul.
The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness and the unconscious.
It is the unconscious (the main of which is sexual attraction - libido) that plays a significant role in regulating human activity and behavior
Censorship from the side of consciousness suppresses unconscious drives, but they “break through” in the form of slips of the tongue, slips of forgetting unpleasant things, dreams, and neurotic manifestations. Psychoanalysis has become widespread not only in Europe, but also in the USA, where it is still popular to this day.
In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 1930s. Against the general background of restrictions on psychological research (the resolution “On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system”), Freud’s teachings were also subjected to repression.
Up until the 1960s. psychoanalysis was studied only from a critical perspective.
Only since the second half of the twentieth century has interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.
So, none of the newly emerging psychological trends has completely resolved the contradictions that led to the crisis of psychology as a science.
Let's consider some modern psychological concepts that began to actively develop starting from the second half of the twentieth century.
Cognitive psychology arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics.
Representatives of the cognitive school - J. Piaget, W. Naiser, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson and others.
For a cognitive scientist, human cognitive processes are an analogue of a computer.
The main thing is to understand how a person learns about the world around him, and to do this, one should study the methods of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how the intellect functions, how words and images are related in human memory and thinking.
The main conclusion is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking.
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