“The sword is sharper than the point of a Roman soldier!
The sword will sparkle, and I see Rome in it!”
Elena Schwartz
The passion for weapons is ineradicable in men's hearts. How many things have been invented, invented, improved! And some things have already become history.
The most important type of hand-to-hand melee weapon in antiquity and the Middle Ages was the sword.
Before the Romans, the main weapon of foot soldiers was the spear. The sword was used only as a last resort - to finish off a defeated enemy, or in case the spear breaks.
“Gladius or gladius (lat. gladius) is a Roman short sword (up to 60 centimeters).
Used for combat in the ranks. Although it was possible to slash with a gladius, it was believed that you could only kill an enemy with a piercing blow, and the gladius was intended for such blows. Gladiuses were most often made of iron. But you can also find mention of bronze swords.”
This sword has been in use since the 4th century BC. to 2nd century AD The Gladius was made in two modifications: the early one - Meinz Gladius, it was produced until 50 AD. and Pompeii Gladius after 50 AD. Of course, this division is conditional; in parallel with the new swords, old ones were also used.
The dimensions of the gladius varied: 64-81 cm - full length, 4-8 cm - width, weight up to 1.6 kg.
Mainz Gladius.
The sword seems to be fitted, has a smoothly tapering tip, the balance of the sword is good for a piercing blow, which was preferable for fighting in close formation.
Full length: 74 cm
Blade length: 53cm
Handle and pommel length: 21 cm
Center of gravity location: 6.35 cm from the guard
Weight: 1.134 kg
Pompeii Gladius.
This sword is more suitable for chopping than its predecessor; its end is not so pointed, and its center of gravity is shifted towards the tip.
Full length: 75cm
Blade length: 56 cm
Handle length with pommel: 19 cm
Center of gravity location: 11 cm from the guard
Weight: up to 900 gr.
As you know, in Sparta all men owned weapons: citizens were forbidden to engage in any craft or even study it. The ideals of this warlike state are best evidenced by the statements of the Spartans themselves:
“The borders of Sparta are as far as this spear can reach” (Agesilaus, Spartan king).
“We use short swords in war because we fight close to the enemy” (Antalactidas, Spartan naval commander and politician).
“My sword is sharper than slander” (Fearid, Spartan).
“Even if there is no other benefit, the sword will become dull on me” (an unknown blind Spartan who asked to be taken to war).
The peculiarity of the short swords of Greek warriors, convenient in close formation, was that they did not have a pointed end and the blows were only chopping. The blows inflicted were parried with a shield and only in rare cases with a sword: the weapon was too short, poorly tempered, and the hands, as a rule, were not protected.
In Ancient Rome, unlike Sparta, military physical training was not a state matter, but a family matter. Until the age of 15, children were raised by their parents in private schools, where they received this training. And from the age of 16, young men entered military camps, where they improved their combat skills, for this they used all kinds of projectiles - stuffed animals dug into the ground, wooden swords and sticks. There were instructors in the Roman army, they were called “doctors of arms,” and they were very respected people.
So, the short swords of the Roman legionnaires were intended to deliver a piercing blow during battle in tightly closed rows and at a very close distance from the enemy. These swords were made of very low-grade iron. The short Roman sword - gladius, a democratic weapon of mass foot battles, aroused contempt both among the barbarian tribes (where long, expensive swords made of excellent steel, whose properties were not inferior to Damascus damask steel, were highly valued), and among the Hellenic environment, which used high-quality bronze armor. However, Roman war tactics brought this particular sword to the forefront, making it the main weapon for building the Roman Empire.
The Roman infantry sword was an ideal melee weapon; it could stab, cut, and chop. They could fight both in and out of formation. They could fight both on land and at sea in boarding battles. On foot and on horseback.
The entire Roman military organization and battle tactics were tailored to foot legions armed with straight swords. And so, first the Etruscans were conquered. In this war, the Romans perfected the tactics and features of combat formations. The First Punic War gave military training to a huge number of legionnaires.
The battle usually took place according to the following scenario.
While camping, the Romans fortified it and surrounded it with a palisade, a ditch and a parapet. Offensive or throwing weapons at that time were still too imperfect to destroy the obstacle that such structures represented. As a result, the army, strengthened in this way, considered itself completely safe from attack and could, at its own discretion, give battle now or wait for a more favorable time.
Before the battle, the Roman army left its camp through several gates and formed a battle formation either in front of the camp fortifications or at a short distance from them. There were many reasons for this: firstly, the army was under the cover of towers and other camp structures and vehicles, secondly, it was very difficult to force it to turn its rear and, finally, even in case of defeat, the camp was a reliable refuge for it, due to which the winner could not pursue him and take advantage of his victory.
The legionnaires of the first row of the first line, covering themselves with shields, quickly approached the enemy and, approaching within the distance of throwing a dart (about 25-30 meters), fired a general volley, and the warriors of the 2nd row threw their spears into the gaps between the soldiers of the first row. The Roman dart was almost 2 meters long, with an iron tip taking up almost half the length. They made a thickening at the end of the tip and sharpened it so that, when stuck into the shield, it stuck tightly to us! It was almost impossible to get him out. Therefore, the enemy had to simply throw away these shields! Darts were also very effective weapons against light cavalry.
Then both lines of enemies entered into hand-to-hand combat with swords in their hands, with the legionnaires of the rear rows pressing against the front rows, supporting them and, if necessary, replacing them. Further, the battle was a chaotic skirmish, breaking up into the struggle of individual warriors with each other. This is where a short but convenient sword came in handy. It did not require a large swing, but the length of the blade made it possible to reach the enemy even from the back row.
The second line of both troops served as support for the first; the third was a reserve. The number of wounded and killed during the battle itself was usually very small, since the armor and shield served as fairly good protection for the blows of the enemy’s sword. And if the enemy fled... Then detachments of lightly armed soldiers and the victor’s cavalry rushed to pursue the infantry of the defeated army, which was forced to turn their rear. Deprived of cover and left to their own devices, the fugitives usually abandoned their shields and helmets; It was then that they were overtaken by the enemy cavalry with its long swords. Thus, the defeated army suffered huge losses. That is why in those days the first battle was usually decisive and sometimes ended the war. This also explains the fact that the losses of the winners were always very insignificant. So, for example, Caesar at Pharsalus lost only 200 legionnaires and 30 centurions, at Thapsus only 50 people, at Munda his losses reached only up to 1000 people, counting both legionnaires and horsemen; There were 500 people wounded in this battle.
Continuous training and excellent organization have done their job. It was precisely these tactics that defeated the hitherto invincible Macedonian phalanx of King Pyrrhus. This is exactly how the famous Hannibal was defeated, who was not helped by war elephants, archers, or numerous cavalry. Even the brilliant Archimedes could not save Syracuse from the powerful and battle-honed Roman military machine. And the Mediterranean Sea at that time was not called anything other than Mare Romanul - the Roman Sea. North African Carthage held out the longest, but alas... it suffered the same fate. Queen Cleopatra surrendered Egypt without a fight. Great Britain, Spain and half of Europe were then under Roman rule.
And all this was done by the Roman infantry, armed with a straight short sword - a gladius.
Today, a Roman sword can be bought at any souvenir weapons store. Of course, it is not as popular as the Japanese katana or knight's swords. It is too simple, devoid of an aura of legend and design sophistication. However... When you see such a sword in a store or among your friends, remember what is written above. After all, this sword conquered half of the ancient world and brought entire nations into awe.
midnight.moole.ru
Any empire must constantly expand its borders. This is an axiom. This means that it is simply obliged to have a powerful and well-organized military machine. The Roman Empire in this regard can be called a standard, a model from which all subsequent “imperialists” took their example, from Charlemagne to the British kings.
The Roman army was, without a doubt, the most formidable force in Antiquity. The famous legions turned the Mediterranean Sea, in fact, into an internal Roman lake; in the west they reached Foggy Albion, and in the east - to the deserts of Mesopotamia. It was a real military mechanism, well trained and organized. After the fall of Rome, it took Europe hundreds of years to reach the level of training, discipline and tactical proficiency of the Roman legionnaires.
The most famous piece of equipment of the Roman legionnaire is, without a doubt, the short sword gladius. This weapon can be called a real calling card of the Roman infantryman and is well known to us from many historical films and books. And this is absolutely fair, because the very history of the conquests of the Roman Empire was written in short gladiuses. Why did it become the main bladed weapon of the Roman infantry? What did this sword look like and what is its history?
Description and classification
The gladius or gladius is a straight, short, one-handed sword, probably borrowed by the Romans from the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. The length of the double-edged blade of later modifications of this weapon did not exceed 60 cm; early versions of the gladius had a longer blade (up to 70 cm). Gladius belongs to the group of piercing-cutting bladed weapons. Most often, these weapons were made of iron, but bronze swords of this type are also known. The samples that have come down to us (dating from the 2nd-3rd centuries AD) were made of high-quality forged steel.
The gladius could be made from several strips of metal with different characteristics hammered together, or it could be made from a single piece of high-carbon steel. The blade had a diamond-shaped cross-section, sometimes the name of the owner or some motto was applied to them.
This sword has a well-defined edge, which allows you to deliver powerful, accented stabbing blows. Of course, it was also possible to deliver slashing blows with a gladius, but the Romans considered them to be secondary, unable to cause serious damage to the enemy. A distinctive feature of the gladius was its massive pommel, which balanced the blade and made the balance of the weapon more convenient. Today, historians know four types of gladius:
- Spanish;
- "Mainz"
- Fulham;
- "Pompeii".
The last three types of gladius are named after the cities near which they were found.
- The Spanish gladius is considered the earliest modification of this weapon. Its total length was approximately 75-85 cm, the dimensions of the blade were 60-65 cm, the width was 5 cm. The “Spaniard” weighed from 0.9 to 1 kg, and its blade had characteristic curves (“waist”), the shape of the blade was somewhat reminiscent of ancient Greek swords;
- "Mainz". This gladius also had a “waist,” but it was much less pronounced than the Spanish version. But the tip of the weapon has noticeably lengthened, while it has become lighter and shorter. The overall size of the Mainz was 65-70 cm, the blade length was 50-55 cm, the blade width was 7 cm. This gladius weighed approximately 0.8 kg;
- The Fulham-type Gladius was generally very similar to the Mainz, but it became even narrower, “straighter” and lighter. The total size of this weapon was 65-70 cm, of which the blade accounted for 50-55 cm, the width of the Fulham blade was approximately 7 cm, and it weighed 700 grams. This sword completely lacked the leaf-like curves of the blade;
- "Pompeii". This type of sword is considered the latest; it can be called the “peak” of the evolution of gladiuses. The blades of the Pompeii blade are completely parallel, its tip has a triangular shape, and in appearance this gladius is very similar to another Roman sword - the spatha, although much smaller. The overall dimensions of the Pompeii type swords are 60-65 cm, they had a blade 45-50 cm long and about 5 cm wide, such a weapon weighed about 700 grams.
As can be easily seen, the evolution of the gladius followed the path of its shortening and lightening, which improved the “stabbing” functions of this weapon.
Gladius history
Before talking about the glorious military path that this famous Roman sword went through, one should understand its very name, because historians still do not have a single generally accepted theory why this weapon began to be called the “gladius”.
There is a theory that the name comes from the Latin word caulis, which means stem. It looks quite plausible, given the shape and small size of the weapon. According to another version, this term may come from another Roman word - clades, which translates as “wound, injury.” Some experts believe that "gladius" comes from the Celtic word kladyos, which literally translates to "sword." Given the likely Spanish origin of the gladius, the latter assumption seems the most logical.
There are other hypotheses about the origin of the name gladius. It is very similar to the name of the flower gladiolus, which translates to “little sword” or “little gladius.” But in this case, most likely, the plant was named after the weapon, and not vice versa.
Be that as it may, the first mentions of gladius swords date back to around the third century BC. Moreover, the most famous sword of the empire was actually not invented by the Romans, but borrowed by them. The first name of this weapon is gladius Hispaniensis, which quite confidently suggests its Pyrenean origin. The Celtiberians, a warlike tribe that lived in northeastern Spain and fought in Rome for a long time, are often cited as the “inventors” of the gladius.
Initially, the Romans used the heaviest and longest version of the gladius - the Spanish type of sword. Also, historical sources report that the first gladiuses were of extremely poor quality: their steel was so soft that after the battle the soldiers had to straighten their weapons with their feet.
Initially, the gladius was not widely used; its widespread use began already in the imperial period of Roman history. It is likely that at first gladiuses were used only as additional weapons. And the point here is not the poor quality of the metal. In order for the gladius to become the most famous weapon of the empire, the battle tactics themselves had to change, the famous Roman close formation had to be born, in which the advantages of the short gladius were most fully revealed. In conditions of an open formation, it is much more convenient to use a spear, ax or long sword.
But in close formation it was a real “weapon of death.” The legionnaires, covering themselves with a large scatum shield, approached the enemy closely, and then used gladiuses. He was extremely comfortable in the close fighting mass of soldiers. No armor could protect the enemy from the powerful stabbing blow of the gladius. The famous Roman historian Polybius noted in his “General History”: “Having deprived the Galatians of the ability to chop - the only way of fighting characteristic of them, for their swords do not have an edge - the Romans made their enemies incapable of battle; They themselves used straight swords, with which they did not chop, but stabbed, which is what the tip of the weapon served for.”
As a rule, when using gladiuses, we were not talking about any complex and elegant fencing; quick and short blows were delivered with this sword. Although, experienced warriors knew how to fence with a gladius, using not only piercing, but also slashing blows. And, of course, the gladius was exclusively an infantry weapon. There was no question of any use in cavalry with such a blade length.
The short sword had another advantage. During the period of Antiquity, steel was scarce, and it was of frankly poor quality. Therefore, the shorter the length of the blade, the lower the likelihood that it will suddenly break in battle. In addition, the gladius was good from an economic point of view: its small size significantly reduced the price of the weapon, which made it possible to arm numerous Roman legions with these swords. However, the main thing, of course, was the high efficiency of the gladius.
The Spanish gladius has been used since the 2nd century BC. e. until the first decades of the new era. Swords like "Mainz" and "Fulham" were used at approximately the same time, and the differences between them are, in fact, minimal. Some experts consider them to be the same type of sword. Both of these types of weapons were clearly intended primarily for stabbing.
But the fourth type of gladius – “Pompeii” – could be used not only for injections, but also for inflicting cut wounds. It is believed that this sword appeared around the middle of the first century AD. During excavations in the Roman city of Pompeii, four swords of this type were found, which is how it got its name.
It is curious that the gladius was not only the “statutory” weapon of the Roman legionnaire, but also emphasized his status: ordinary legionnaires wore it on their right side, and “junior command staff” wore it on their right.
Around the third century AD, the gladius gradually began to fall out of use. And again it was a matter of changes in battle tactics. The famous Roman closed formation was no longer so effective and was used less and less, so the importance of the gladius began to decrease. Although, their use continued until the decline of the great empire.
At the same time, a different type of blade appeared in the arsenal of the Roman army - the heavy cavalry spatha. At first, this sword was borrowed by the Romans from the Gauls, who soon became the basis of the cavalry of Rome. However, the barbarian sword was modified and received the easily recognizable features of a gladius - a well-defined tip of a characteristic shape, allowing for powerful piercing blows. Thus, a sword appeared that could both stab and cut the enemy well at the same time. The Roman spatha is considered the forerunner of all European medieval swords, from the Carolingian Viking blades to the two-handed giants of the late Middle Ages. So we can safely say that the famous gladius did not die, but was simply reborn into a weapon that was used in Europe for hundreds of years.
Ancient Rome was one of the greatest empires. An empire that conquered most of the then known world. This state had a tremendous influence on the entire further process of development of civilization, and the perfection of some structures and organizations of this country has not yet been surpassed.
We can safely say that from the moment of its inception, the words Roman Empire and the concepts of “order,” “organization,” and “discipline” became synonymous. This fully applies to the ancient Roman army, the legionnaires, who inspired awe and respect among the barbarian peoples...
A fully equipped and equipped fighter was armed with a sword (in Latin "gladius"), several darts ("plumbatae") or spears ("pila"). For protection, the legionnaires used a large rectangular shield (“scutum”). The battle tactics of the ancient Roman army were quite simple - before the start of the battle, the enemy was pelted with spears and darts, after which hand-to-hand combat began. And it was in such hand-to-hand battles, in which the Romans preferred to fight in a very dense formation, consisting of several rows, where the back rows pressed against the front ones, simultaneously supporting and pushing forward, that the advantages of the legionnaires’ sword were revealed, i.e. gladius
Gladius and spatha
The fact is that the gladius was an almost ideal weapon for working in tight formation: the total length of the weapon (not exceeding 60 centimeters) did not require any room to swing, and the sharpening of the blade itself made it possible to deliver both chopping and piercing blows (although preference was given to strong piercing blows). blows from behind a shield, which gave very good protection). Also, the gladiuses had two more undoubted advantages: they were all of the same type (in modern terms - “serial”), so a legionnaire who lost his weapon in battle could use the weapon of a defeated comrade without any inconvenience. In addition, usually ancient Roman swords were made from fairly low-grade iron, so they were cheap to produce, which means that such weapons could be produced in very large quantities, which in turn led to an increase in the regular army.
A very interesting fact is that, according to historians, the gladius is not originally a Roman invention and was most likely borrowed from the tribes that at one time conquered the Iberian Peninsula. Around the 3rd century BC, the ancient Romans borrowed a straight short sword called Gladius Hispaniensis (i.e. “Spanish sword”) from barbarian tribes (presumably Gauls or Celts). The word gladius itself may well come from the Celtic “kladyos” (“sword”), although some experts believe that the term may also come from the Latin “clades” (“damage, wound”) or “gladii” (“stem”) ). But, one way or another, it was the Romans who “immortalized” this short sword.
Gladius is a double-edged sword with a wedge-shaped tip, used for piercing and cutting blows to the enemy. The durable hilt had a convex handle that could have indentations for the fingers. The strength of the sword was ensured either by batch forging: joining together several steel strips using blows, or by the diamond-shaped cross-section of the blade when manufactured from a single high-carbon steel billet. When manufactured by batch forging, a downward channel was located in the center of the sword.
Very often, the name of the owner was indicated on the swords, which was stamped on the blade or engraved.
Stabbing blows had a great effect during battles because puncture wounds, especially in the abdominal cavity, as a rule, were always fatal. But in some situations, cutting and slashing blows were applied with a gladius, as evidenced by Livy in his reports on the Macedonian wars, which speaks of the frightened soldiers of Macedonia when they saw the chopped bodies of soldiers.
Despite the main strategy of the infantrymen - to deliver stabbing blows to the stomach, during training they were aimed at gaining any advantage in battle, not excluding the possibility of hitting the enemy below the level of the shields, damaging the kneecaps with slashing blows.
There are four types of gladius.
Spanish gladius
Used no later than 200 BC. to 20 BC The length of the blade is approximately 60-68 cm. The length of the sword is approximately 75-85 cm. The width of the sword is approximately 5 cm. It was the largest and heaviest of the gladiuses. The earliest and longest of the gladiuses, it had a pronounced leaf-like shape. The maximum weight was about 1 kg, the standard weighed about 900 g with a wooden handle.
Gladius "Mainz"
Mainz was founded as a Roman permanent camp at Moguntiacum around 13 BC. This large camp provided the population base for the growing city around it. Sword making probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentlius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his demobilization bonus to start a business as a gladiarius, manufacturer and dealer of weapons. Swords made in Mainz were sold mainly to the north. The Mainz variation of the gladius was characterized by a small blade waist and a long tip. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. Blade width about 7 cm. Sword weight about 800 g. (with wooden handle). The Mainz-type gladius was intended primarily for stabbing. As for the chopping, if applied awkwardly, it could even damage the blade.
Gladius Fulham
The sword which gave the type its name was dug up from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date from after the Roman occupation of Britain. This was after the invasion of Aulia Platius in 43 AD. It was used until the end of that same century. It is considered an intermediate link between the Mainz type and the Pompeii type. Some consider this a development of the Mainz type, or simply this type. The blade is slightly narrower than the Mainz type, the main difference being the triangular point. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. The blade width is approximately 6cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).
Gladius "Pompeii"
Named in modern times after Pompeii, a Roman city in which many of its inhabitants died - despite the Roman navy's efforts to evacuate the people - which was destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 AD. Four examples of swords were found there. The sword has parallel blades and a triangular tip. It is the shortest of the gladiuses. It is worth noting that it is often confused with the spatha, which was a longer slashing weapon used by mounted auxiliaries. Unlike its predecessor, it was much better suited for cutting with the enemy, while its penetrating ability during a stabbing strike decreased. Over the years the Pompeii type has become longer and later versions are referred to as semi-spatas. Blade length 45-50cm. Sword length 60-65cm. The blade width is about 5cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).
By the third century, even the Pompeii-type gladius was not effective enough.
The tactics of the legions became more defensive than offensive, as in previous centuries. There was an urgent need for longer swords, suitable for single combat or fighting in a relatively free formation. And then the Roman infantry armed themselves with the cavalry sword, known as the "spata".
A long sword invented by the Celts, but extensively used by Roman cavalry. Initially, the spatha was created and used by the Celts as a sword for infantrymen, which had a rounded edge and was intended for delivering slashing blows, but over time, having appreciated the edge of the gladius, intended for stabbing blows, the Celts sharpened the spatha, and the Roman horse warriors admired with this long sword, they took it into service. Due to the center of gravity shifted closer to the tip, this sword was ideal for horse battles.
The Roman spatha reached a weight of 2 kg, the width of the blade varied from 4 to 5 centimeters, and the length from approximately 60 to 80 centimeters. The handle of the Roman spatha was made in the same way as the gladius, made of wood and bone.
When the sword appeared in the Roman Empire, cavalry officers first began to arm themselves with it, then the entire cavalry changed their weapons, followed by auxiliary units that did not have a formation and participated in the battle more in a scattered form, that is, the battle with them was divided into fights. Soon the officers of the infantry units appreciated this sword, and over time they not only armed themselves with them, but also armed ordinary legionnaires. Of course, some legionnaires remained faithful to the gladius, but it soon completely faded into history, giving way to the more practical spatha.
Pugio
A dagger used by Roman soldiers as a sidearm. It is believed that the pugio was intended as a auxiliary weapon, but its exact combat use remains unclear. Attempts to identify the pugio as a utility knife are misleading because the blade shape is not suitable for this purpose. In any case, there were many knives of various shapes and sizes on Roman military installations, and therefore there was no need to use only the pugio for universal purposes. Officials of the Roman Empire wore ornate daggers while on duty at their workplaces. Some carried daggers secretly, for protection against unforeseen circumstances. In general, this dagger served as a weapon of murder and suicide; for example, the conspirators who dealt a fatal blow to Julius Caesar used pugio for this.
Ultimately the pugio was derived from Spanish originals of various types. However, by the early 1st century AD, replicas of this Roman dagger typically had a wide blade, which could be leaf-shaped. There could also be an alternative blade shape with the tip narrowing towards the tip of the wide blades from approximately half the length of the blade. The blades range in size from 18 cm to 28 cm in length and 5 cm or more in width. The central rib stretched the entire length of each side of the blade, either located in the middle or forming an extension in both directions. The tang was wide and flat, the handle linings were riveted onto it, as well as onto the shoulders of the blade. The pommel was originally round in shape, but by the early 1st century AD it had acquired a trapezoidal shape, often topped with three decorative rivets.
The pugio had its own sheath. During the second quarter of the 1st century AD, three types of scabbard were used. All had four rings for fastenings and a convex extension to which a large rivet was attached. Judging by the examples of wearing that have survived to us, the two lower rings were not used to secure the sheath. The first type was made of curved metal (usually iron) plates. These plates were located on the front and back sides of the scabbard and seemed to seal the wooden “lining”. The front part was usually richly decorated with brass or silver inlay, as well as red, yellow or green enamel. A feature of these scabbards was the free movement of ring pendants attached by riveted forked fasteners. Modern reconstructions of these scabbards, which are made of copper plates secured with rivets, are incorrect; examples of this type have never been found. This common error occurs due to the misinterpretation of the line drawing in the archaeological report of the type "A" iron scabbard, which was simply decorated with silver inlay and decorative rivets.
The second type of scabbard was made of wood and, presumably, covered with leather. Metal plates (almost always iron) were attached to the front of such sheaths. This plate was made quite smooth and richly decorated with inlay with silver (sometimes tin) and enamel. The pendant rings resembled small Roman military buckles and were hinged to the sides of the case. The third type (the "frame type") was made of iron and consisted of a pair of curved runners that ran together and flared at the lower end of the scabbard to form a spherical end. The runners were connected by two horizontal stripes in the upper and middle parts of the scabbard.
Gasta
The main type of infantry spear in ancient Rome, although at different periods of time the name ghast denoted different types of spears, for example, the Roman poet Ennius, around the 3rd century BC, mentions ghast in his works as a designation for a throwing spear, which actually meant time is the generally accepted meaning. Following the modern judgment of historians, it was initially customary to arm legionnaires with heavy spears, which are now commonly called ghasts. At a later time, heavy spears were replaced with lighter darts - pilums. Ghasts are divided into three types, each of which can be safely called a separate type of spear:
1. A heavy infantry spear intended exclusively for close combat.
2. A shortened spear, which was used both as a melee weapon and as a throwing weapon.
3. A lightweight dart intended exclusively for throwing.
Until the 3rd century BC, the ghasta was in service with heavy infantry soldiers who marched on the front line. These soldiers were called so, in honor of the spear with which they went into battle - hastati, although later the spear went out of general use, the warriors continued to be called hastati. Despite the fact that the hastu was replaced by a pilum for ordinary soldiers, the heavy spear remained in service with the principles and triarii, but this also lasted until the beginning of the 1st century BC. There was light infantry (velites), which did not have a formation order, which was always armed with light throwing ghasts (hasta velitaris).
The length of the ghast was approximately 2 m, of which the lion's share was taken by the shaft (a completely different ratio compared to the pilum), which was approximately 170 cm long and was made mainly of ash. The tip was initially forged from bronze, but later bronze was replaced by iron (as in many other cases associated with weapons in the ancient Roman army), the length of the tip averaged 30 cm. Senior soldier ranks: beneficiaries, frumentaries, speculators, who often performed special assignments, had spears of a special shape, emphasizing their status. The tips of their spears were decorated with iron rings. It is known that the Romans had a special military award - a golden or silver spear (hasta pura). In the era of the Empire, it was awarded, as a rule, to officers of the legions, starting with senior centurions.
Pilum
A polearm bladed weapon of Roman legionnaires, a type of dart designed to be thrown from a short distance at an enemy. Its exact origin has not yet been clarified. Perhaps it was invented by the Latins, or perhaps borrowed from the Samnites or Etruscans. The pilum became widespread in the Republican army of Rome and was in service with legionnaires until the beginning of the 4th century AD. e. It is mainly used by infantrymen, and during the period of the Republican army (late 6th century BC - 27 BC) it was used by a certain type of army - lightly armed velites and heavy infantry hastati. Around 100 BC. General Marius introduces the pilum as part of the equipment of every legionnaire.
Initially it consists of a long iron tip, equal in length to the shaft. The shaft was half driven into the tip, and the total length was about 1.5–2 meters. The metal part was thin, up to 1 cm in diameter, 0.6-1 m in length and with a serrated or pyramidal point. During the reign of Caesar, there were various versions of the original type - the tip was either lengthened or shortened. Pilums were also divided into light (up to 2 kg) and heavy (up to 5 kg). Its main difference from a spear was the long iron part. This served to ensure that if the enemy’s shield was hit, it could not be cut with a sword.
The tip of the pilum could be attached using a tube at the end or a flat tongue, which was attached to the shaft with 1-2 rivets. Many darts with a “tongue” along the edges of the flat part of the edges were bent and covered the shaft so that the tip would fit better to it. A well-preserved pilum (about 80 BC) with a second variant of fastening the tip was found in Valencia (Spain) ) and in Oberraden (northern Germany). Thanks to these finds, it is confirmed that by the middle of the 1st century BC. the pilum becomes lighter. Earlier copies of it were discovered in northern Etruria, near Telamon. The tips of these samples were very short - only 25-30 cm in length. There were also pilums with a flat part 57-75 cm long. During the famous military reforms of the military leader Gaius Marius, he noticed that the spear did not always bend when struck, and the enemy could pick it up and use it. To prevent this, one of the rivets is replaced with a wooden pin, which breaks upon impact, and the sides of the tongue are not bent.
Heavy pilums have a shaft that tapers towards the end; at the junction with the tip there is a round heavy counterweight, which should increase the striking force of the spear. This type of pilum is depicted on the Cancilleria relief in Rome, which shows Praetorians armed with them.
Basically, the spear was intended for throwing at the enemy, as a piercing weapon it was used much less often. They threw it before the start of hand-to-hand combat at a distance of 7 to 25 meters, lighter samples - up to 65 meters. Even though the pilum simply got stuck in the enemy’s shield without causing significant damage, it made it difficult for the enemy to move in close combat. In this case, the soft shaft of the tip often bent, making it impossible to quickly pull it out or cut it. Using the shield after this became inconvenient and had to be discarded. If the shield remained in the hands of the enemy, the legionnaire who arrived in time stepped on the shaft of the stuck pilum and pulled the enemy’s shield down, forming a convenient gap for striking with a spear or sword. Heavy pilums could, with the force of the blow, penetrate not only a shield, but also an enemy in armor. This has been proven by modern tests. From a distance of 5 meters, the Roman pilum pierces a three-centimeter pine board and a two-centimeter layer of plywood.
Later the pilum gives way to a lighter spiculum. But there is a possibility that these are different names for the same type of weapon. With the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire, regular infantry - legionnaires - become a thing of the past, and along with them, pilums disappear from the battlefield. The era of dominance on the battlefield by heavy cavalry and the long spear begins.
Lancea
Roman cavalry spear.
Josephus mentions that the Roman cavalry defeated the Jewish cavalry thanks to long lance spears. Later, after the crisis of the 3rd century, new models of spears were introduced into the infantry, replacing pilums. New types of throwing spears (appearing after the reforms of Diocletian), according to Vegetius, are vertullum, spicullum and plumbata. The first two were meter darts, and the plumbata was a 60 cm lead-weighted feathered dart.
The Praetorians were supplemented by detachments of lanciarii - bodyguards-spearmen; similar units appeared in the legions to protect especially important persons. The lancea was a service weapon, but a spear was not used indoors, and the lanciarii were not limited in the choice of additional weapons; during the collapse of the empire, such a guard was an attribute of any important commander or, less often, a senator.
Plumbata.
The first mention of the combat use of plumbats dates back to ancient Greece in which warriors used plumbats from about 500 BC, but the most famous use of plumbats in the late Roman and Byzantine armies.
In the description, Vegetia plumbata is a long-range throwing weapon. The heavily armed warriors who served in the Roman legion, in addition to traditional equipment, were equipped with five plumbats, which they wore on the inside of the shield. Soldiers used plumbats as an offensive weapon during the first onslaught and as a defensive weapon during an enemy attack. Constant exercise allowed them to achieve such experience in handling weapons that enemies and their horses were amazed before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within range of a dart or arrow. Thus, at the same time, warriors on the battlefield combined the qualities of heavy infantry and riflemen. The skirmishers, who fought in front of the formation at the beginning of the battle, also had plumbats in service. Moving back with the start of hand-to-hand combat under the cover of their own, they continued to fire at the enemy. At the same time, the plumbats threw them along a high trajectory, over the heads of those in front. Vegetius specifically stipulates the need to arm the triarii standing in the rear ranks of the formation with plumbats. He also recommended to his readers to use plumbats in siege warfare - both when protecting walls from enemy attacks and when storming enemy fortifications.
The appearance of the plumbata occurs as a result of the development of the same tendency to increase the mass of the weapon to enhance the energy of its throw. However, if the pilum, equipped with a lead sinker, could be thrown only at 20 m, and at this distance it pierced through the shield and the shield-bearer hiding behind it, then the lighter one due to the reduction in the size of the shaft and the massiveness of the iron part of the plumbat tip flew at 50-60 m , which is comparable to the throwing range of a light dart. The plumbatu is distinguished from the latter by its smaller size and a special throwing technique, in which the warrior took the shaft with his fingers by the tail and threw it with a shoulder swing of his arm, like throwing a throwing club or club. In this case, the plumbat shaft became an extension of the thrower’s hand and increased the throwing leverage, and the lead sinker imparted additional kinetic energy to the projectile. Thus, with a size smaller than that of a dart, the plumbata received a larger initial supply of energy, which made it possible to throw it at a distance at least not inferior to the distance of throwing a dart. Moreover, if the dart at the end almost completely wasted the initial throwing energy imparted to it and, even when hitting the target, could not cause any noticeable damage to it, then the plumbata, even at the maximum range of its flight, retained a reserve of energy sufficient to hit the victim.
An important advantage of the Romans' opponents was the possession of longer-range weapons, which could be used to shoot closely-formed legions from extreme distances. The destructive effect of such shelling was probably quite insignificant, and its effectiveness was achieved by weakening the enemy's resistance and his confidence in his own strength. An adequate response on the part of the Romans was the use of projectiles that had a greater firing distance and destructive power than the enemy. As noted earlier, plumbata was thrown at a distance equal to the flight range of the dart. But if the dart at the maximum distance turned out to be completely powerless, then the plumbata, even at the end, retained enough energy to hit its victim and incapacitate it. In particular, Vegetius points out this property of plumbata when he says that the Romans “wounded enemies and their horses before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within range of a dart or arrow.”
The short shaft of the plumbat and the throwing technique, which did not require much space, allowed the rear ranks of the formation to fire at the enemy also during hand-to-hand combat. In order not to hit those in front, the shells were sent upward at a large angle. Due to the high angle of incidence of the plumbat, it pierced the target from top to bottom, at an angle of 30 to 70 degrees, which made it possible to hit the head, neck and shoulders of a warrior hiding behind a shield. At a time when all the attention of the combatants was turned to the enemy, the shells raining down from above were especially dangerous because “they could neither be seen nor avoided.”
During the African campaign of 530, a plumbata thrown by Belisarius' spearman John of Armenia pierced the helmet of the nephew of the Vandal king Geiseric and inflicted a mortal wound on him, from which he soon died, but the helmet was made of the thickest metal.
One of the main signs of an empire, as is known, is the desire for constant expansion, that is, to conquer new territories. An empire cannot be static. It is obvious that conquests are possible only with a professional, powerful and, importantly, well-armed army. In this regard, the example of the Roman Empire is one of the most illustrative: the strongest army of antiquity conquered the entire Mediterranean coast, reaching Great Britain in the West and Mesopotamia in the East. It is not surprising that the army of Ancient Rome became famous as a “war machine”, and every schoolchild can imagine what the famous Roman legionnaire looks like. However, the warrior’s arsenal was not very diverse. Traditionally, it included a spear - pilum and hasta, a shield - scutum, and swords - gladius and spatha...
"Spanish" gladius ("Gladius Hispaniensis")
Gladius Hispaniensis is considered the largest in its “family”
The use of the gladius begins in the 2nd century BC. The origin of the sword is unknown, but its first name - gladius Hispaniensis - suggests that the roots of the weapon should be sought somewhere on the Iberian Peninsula. The first gladius is considered the largest in its “family”: it was 64-69 cm long and 4-5.5 cm wide. The blade, as a rule, was straight, but could also taper, forming a kind of “waist”. With such a blade it was possible to chop and stab. Actually, the pointed end of the sword made it possible to pierce the light armor of opponents, and the large knob of the handle served as a counterweight, which made the weapon well balanced.
"Pompeian" gladius
The evolution of the sword went towards reducing its length. During the reign of the first Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus, the type of gladius was popular, which would later be called “Mainz / Fulham” (it was in these places that samples of the improved sword were first discovered). Unlike the Spanish version, the Mainz gladius was shorter - 50-60 cm, and its width was increased by a centimeter compared to the predecessor blade - from 5 to 6 cm.
"Pompeian" gladius - the most popular blade of Roman legionnaires
Such a blade had to compete with another variation of the gladius - the “Pompeian”, which was the shortest of all (42-55 cm). Due to its small size, it also had low weight - only about 1 kg. The "Pompeian" version is believed to have supplanted the others and became the main blade in the service of Roman legionnaires.
Gladius, as noted by the Greek historian Polybius (207−120 BC) in his General History, had an advantage over the weapons of their opponents: “Having deprived the Galatians of the ability to chop, the only way of fighting characteristic of them, for their swords do not have an edge, - the Romans made their enemies incapable of fighting; They themselves used straight swords, with which they did not chop, but stabbed, which is what the tip of the weapon served for.”
Due to its small size, the Pompeian gladius weighed about 1 kg
The Roman historian Titus Livius (end of the 1st century BC - beginning of the 1st century AD) reported that “in former times the Romans had round shields, but since the soldiers began to receive salaries, they replaced them with large oblong ones." The soldiers were armed with a spear, which they first threw at the enemy, and then with a sword and shield they went into hand-to-hand combat, maintaining a tight formation. Naturally, with a short sword the risk of injuring a comrade was reduced. At the same time, those same large shields of the Roman legionnaires covered almost the entire body, so the battle technique mainly consisted of advancing on the enemy, hiding behind the scutum, and delivering piercing blows.
Spathas and gladius
But already in the middle of the 2nd century, the gladius was gradually replaced by another sword - the spatha. Slightly heavier (2 kg), longer and narrower (from 75-100 cm in length and 5-6 cm in width), in a dense Roman formation it was inferior to the gladius in compactness. It is believed that the Romans wore the spatha on the right side, rather than on the left: this made it more convenient to remove the sword from its sheath without risking the life of the warrior standing next to it.
Spatha replaces the gladius in the middle of the 2nd century AD. e.
It was originally a purely cutting weapon, which the Romans borrowed from the Gauls, who came to form the basis of the Roman cavalry. Subsequently, the Roman version of the spatha was transformed and received a pointed end, like a gladius, which made it possible to chop and stab at the same time. The Roman version of the sword was later borrowed by the Germans, and even the famous Viking swords are believed to originate from the Roman spatha.
In the period from I to VI centuries. On the territory of the Roman Empire, one of the main types of weapons was a straight, double-edged sword, which went down in history under the name “spata.” Its length ranged from 75 cm to 1 m, and its design features made it possible to deliver both piercing and slashing blows. Fans of edged weapons will be interested to know its history.
A bit of linguistics
The name of the sword, which has come into modern use - spatha - comes from the Latin word spatha, which has several translations in Russian, denoting both a completely peaceful tool - a spatula, and various types of bladed weapons. Having rummaged through dictionaries, you can find such translations as “sword” or “sword”. Based on this root, nouns of similar meaning are formed in Greek, Romanian and all Romance languages. This gives researchers reason to claim that the long, double-edged blade of this sample was used everywhere.
Two worlds - two types of weapons
The Roman army, which was the most advanced in the world at the turn of the millennium, borrowed the spatha sword, oddly enough, from the barbarians - the semi-wild tribes of the Gauls who inhabited the territory of Central and Western Europe. This type of weapon was very convenient for them, since, not knowing the battle order, they fought in a scattered crowd and inflicted mainly cutting blows on the enemy, in which the length of the blade contributed to their greater effectiveness. When the barbarians mastered horse riding skills and began to use cavalry in battle, here too the long double-edged sword came in handy.
At the same time, the Roman legionnaires, who used battle tactics in close formation, were deprived of the opportunity to make a full swing with a long blade and hit the enemy with piercing blows. The short sword used in their army, the gladius, whose length did not exceed 60 cm, was perfect for this purpose. In appearance and fighting qualities, it was fully consistent with the traditions of ancient weapons.
Gallic swords in the arsenal of the Romans
However, at the beginning of the 1st century the picture changed. The Roman army was significantly replenished with warriors from among the Gauls who had been conquered by that time, who were excellent riders and over time formed the main shock part of the cavalry. It was they who brought with them long swords, which gradually began to be used along with traditional gladiuses. The infantry took them over from the cavalrymen, and thus the weapons, once created by the barbarians, began to protect the interests of a highly developed empire.
According to a number of historians, initially the barbarian swords had blades with a rounded end and were purely chopping weapons. But, having appreciated the piercing properties of the gladiuses with which the legionnaires were armed, and realizing that they were not using a significant part of the potential of their weapons, the Gauls also began to sharpen them, at the same time changing their battle tactics. That is why it has such a characteristic design. It remained unchanged until about the 6th century and made the weapon we are considering one of the symbols of that era.
Factors that contributed to the proliferation of new weapons
Since the proud and proud Romans looked down on long swords, which, in their opinion, were the property of the barbarians, at first only auxiliary units, entirely consisting of Gauls and Germans, were armed with them. For them, they were familiar and convenient, while the short gladiuses, which were not adapted to slashing blows, hindered them in battle and prevented them from using conventional tactics.
However, after the excellent fighting qualities of the new weapons became obvious, the Roman legionaries changed their attitude towards them. Following the soldiers of the auxiliary units, the officers of the cavalry units received it, and later it became part of the arsenal of the heavy cavalry. It is interesting to note that the wide distribution of spatha swords was facilitated by the fact that by the 3rd century, military service had ceased to be a prestigious occupation for the Romans (this was one of the reasons for the subsequent collapse of the empire), and the bulk of the troops were recruited from yesterday’s barbarians. They were devoid of prejudices and willingly took up weapons familiar from childhood.
Evidence from an ancient Roman historian
The first literary mention of swords of this type can be found in the works of the ancient Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus, whose life and work spanned the period of the second half of the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd century. It was he who, describing the history of the empire, said that all auxiliary units of its army - both foot and horse - were equipped with wide double-edged swords, the length of the blades exceeding the norm of 60 cm established in Rome. This fact is noted in several of his writings.
Of course, in this case we are talking about arming Roman legionnaires with swords of Gallic origin. By the way, the author does not give any indication of the ethnicity of the soldiers of the auxiliary units, but the results of archaeological excavations carried out in modern Germany, as well as other countries of Eastern Europe, leave no doubt that they were precisely Germans and Gauls.
Spathas during the Roman Iron Age
The Iron Age of Roman history is usually understood as a period in the development of Northern Europe, which began in the 1st and ended in the 5th century AD. Despite the fact that this territory was not formally controlled by Rome, the formation of the states located there was influenced by its culture. Evidence of this can be found in artifacts discovered during excavations in the Baltic countries. Most of them were locally made, but were made according to Roman designs. Among them there were often ancient weapons, including spat.
In this regard, it would be appropriate to give the following example. On the territory of Denmark, 8 kilometers from the city of Sønderborg in 1858, about a hundred swords made in the period 200-450 were discovered. In appearance they were classified as Roman, but research carried out today has shown that they are all locally produced. This was a very important discovery, demonstrating how widely the technical achievements of Rome had on the development of European peoples.
Weapons of German masters
In passing, we note that the spread of spatha swords was not limited to the Roman Empire. Very soon they were adopted by the Franks, Europeans who were part of an alliance of ancient Germanic tribes. Having somewhat improved the design of this ancient weapon, they used it until the 8th century. Over time, mass production of bladed weapons was established on the banks of the Rhine. It is known that during the early Middle Ages, double-edged swords of the Roman type, forged by German gunsmiths, were especially valued in all European countries.
Weapons of European nomadic peoples
In the history of Europe, the period IV-VII centuries. entered as the era of the Great Migration of Peoples. Numerous ethnic groups, who settled mainly in the peripheral regions of the Roman Empire, left their homes and, driven by the Huns invading from the east, wandered in search of salvation. According to contemporaries, Europe then turned into an endless stream of refugees, whose interests sometimes overlapped, which often led to bloody clashes.
It is quite understandable that in such a situation the demand for weapons increased rapidly, and the production of double-edged swords increased. However, as can be concluded from the examples of images that have survived to this day, their quality has decreased significantly, since market demand largely exceeded supply.
The spat during the Great Migration of Peoples had their own characteristic features. Unlike the weapons of the Roman cavalry, their length varied from 60 to 85 cm, which was most suitable for foot soldiers who did not know close formation. The hilts of the swords were made small, since the barbarians for the most part did not know how to fence and in battle did not rely on technique, but only on strength and endurance.
Since master gunsmiths used extremely low quality steel for their work, the ends of the blades were made rounded, for fear that the tip could break at any moment. The weight of swords rarely exceeded 2.5-3 kg, which ensured the greatest effectiveness of his slashing blows.
Viking swords
An important stage in the improvement of spatha was the creation on its basis of the so-called Caroling sword, often referred to in literature as the Viking sword. Its distinctive feature is the fullers - longitudinal depressions made on the planes of the blade. There is a misconception that they were intended to drain the enemy's blood, but in fact, this technical innovation made it possible to reduce the weight of the weapon and significantly increase its strength.
Another important feature of the Caroling sword is the use of forge welding in its manufacture. This advanced technology for its time consisted of placing a high-strength steel blade in a special way between two strips of soft iron. Thanks to this, the blade retained its sharpness when struck and at the same time was not brittle. But such swords were expensive and were the property of few. The bulk of weapons were made from homogeneous material.
Later modifications of spatha swords
At the end of the article, we will mention two more types of spathas - these are Norman and Byzantine swords, which appeared simultaneously at the end of the 9th century. They also had their own characteristic features. Due to the technical achievements of that era and improvements in weapon production technology, their samples had more elastic and breakage-resistant blades, in which the edge was made more pronounced. The overall balance of the sword shifted towards it, which increased its lethality.
The pommel - the thickening at the end of the handle - began to be made more massive and shaped like a nut. These modifications continued to be improved during the 10th and 11th centuries, then giving way to a new type of edged weapon - knightly swords, which better met the requirements of the time.
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