Latin letters: what they are and how they differ. Alphabet

Modern version of the Latin alphabet
Letter	Name	Letter	Name
A	A	N	En
B	Bae	O	ABOUT
C	Tse	P	Pe
D	Dae	Q	Ku
E	E	R	Er
F	Eph	S	Es
G	Ge	T	Tae
H	Ha	U	U
I	AND	V	Ve
J	Yot	W	Double Ve
K	Ka	X	X
L	El	Y	Upsilon
M	Em	Z	Zeta/Zeta

Let me remind you that the Latin language belongs to the Latin-Falian subgroup of Italic languages ​​(the languages ​​of the tribes that, from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, lived on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, except for the Etruscans, Ligurians, Celts and Greeks). The Italic languages, in turn, belong to the family of Indo-European languages. Initially, Latin was the language of a small tribe - the Latins, living in the center of the Apennine Peninsula. This information may be of interest when taking a closer look at the Latin alphabet.

Origins of the Latin alphabet

Influence of the Etruscan alphabet

The Etruscan culture was well known to the Latins. In the 9-8 centuries BC, the relatively small territory of Latium bordered on the north with the then significant territory of the Etruscan tribe (they are also Tusks or Tosks, now the Italian province of Tuscany). At a time when the culture of the Latins was just emerging, the culture of the Etruscans was already experiencing its heyday.

The Latins borrowed quite a lot from the Etruscans. The Etruscan writing had a right-to-left direction, so for convenience, the reverse (compared to the usual Latin) spelling of letters was used (naturally, this was the original spelling; we use the reverse version).

Influence of the Greek alphabet

The Greek alphabet also made a significant contribution to the formation of modern Latin. It is worth mentioning that the Etruscan alphabet was partially borrowed from Western Greek. But direct borrowing from Greek into Latin began later, when the Romans, in their characteristic style, began a thorough acquaintance with Greek culture. Greek names and names contained sounds that were not characteristic of Roman phonetics; there were no letters in the Latin language to write them, so Greek letters were also transferred to the Latin alphabet. This is the origin of the letters "x", "y", "z".

Ancient Greek inscriptions were also made not only from left to right, but also from right to left and boustrophedon (the Greeks gave the name to this type of writing), therefore in the ancient Greek language there were both direct and reverse variants of writing letters at the same time.

Influence of Phoenician consonantal writing

The Phoenicians are considered the creators of the first phonetic writing. The Phoenician alphabet was a syllabary alphabet in which one symbol denoted the combination of one consonant sound with any vowel (It is often said that the Phoenicians wrote down only consonants, but this assumption is formally incorrect). The Phoenicians traveled a lot, settled in more and more new places... and their writing traveled and took root with them. Gradually, spreading in different directions, the symbols of the Phoenician alphabet were transformed, on the one hand, into the letters of the Greek and then the Latin alphabet, and on the other, into the letters of Hebrew (and other northern Semitic dialects).

Comparative table of symbols of related languages ​​(Commentary see below in the text)

The conclusions drawn from the results of comparing all these languages ​​are different. The issue of continuity has not been completely resolved, however, the similarity of independent ancient languages ​​suggests that there may have been one progenitor language. Many researchers tend to look for it in Canaan, a semi-mythical state that the Phoenicians considered their homeland.

History of the Latin alphabet

The first Latin inscriptions available to modern researchers date back to the 7th century BC. Since that time, it has been customary to talk about archaic Latin. The archaic alphabet consists of 21 letters. The Greek letters theta, phi and psi were used to write the numbers 100, 1000, 50.

Having become a censor in 312 BC, Appius Claudius Caecus introduced differences in the writing of the letters “r” and “s” and abolished the letter “z”, and the sound denoted by this letter was replaced by [r]. Closely related to this event is one of the basic laws of phonetics of the Latin language - the law of rhotacism.

After the abolition of the letter "z", the Latin alphabet of the classical period contains 20 letters.

In the 1st century BC, the letter "z" was borrowed again, and with it the letter "y". In addition, the letter “g” was finally recognized (before this, both sounds: voiced - [g] and voiceless - [k] were designated by one letter - “c”). Of course, there were some disputes, but it is generally accepted that Spurius Carvilius Ruga was the first to use it in 235 BC, however, at that time it was not included in the alphabet.

The alphabet began to consist of 23 letters.

Another important event in the history of the Latin alphabet occurs in the 1st century AD. Using the practice of replacing the most common combinations of letters with one symbol, which was widespread in Greece, the future emperor Claudius (since 41 AD, being a censor) introduced three new letters, later called “Claudian”: reverse digamma, antisigma and half ha.

The reverse digamma was to be used to indicate the sound [in:].

Antisigma - to denote combinations of bs and ps, similar to the Greek letter psi.

Half ha - to indicate the sound between [i] and [u].

They never made it into the alphabet.

Nevertheless:

1. The codes for these characters are included in Unicode: u+2132, u+214e - reverse digamma, u+2183, u+2184 - antisigma, u+2c75, u+2c76 - half ha.
2. The letters “y” and “v”, which were completely defined in the alphabet somewhat later, became analogues of two of the three Claudian letters, which indicates the validity of the proposal of the future emperor.

Much later, the issue with pairs of letters “i” - “j”, “v” - “u” was resolved. Both pairs were used in writing before, and denoted two pairs of sounds ([i] - [th], [v] - [y]), but it was not clearly defined which spelling denotes which sound. The separation of the first couple supposedly occurred in the 16th century AD, and the second in the 18th century (although some researchers suggest that this happened simultaneously for both couples).

The modern version of the Latin alphabet, consisting of 25 letters, was formalized during the Renaissance (hence the assumption of the separation of "v" and "u" in the 16th century, since they are both contained in this variant). This event is closely connected with the name of Petrus Ramus.

The digraph "vv", especially common in Northern Europe, became the letter "w". The sound denoted by this letter came from the Germanic languages ​​after the fall of the Roman Empire, so many experts do not include the letter “w” in the Latin alphabet or include it conditionally.

Rules for pronunciation of Latin words

Alphabet

Printed letters	Letter names	Reading
Aa	A	A
Bb	bae	b
Cc	tse	ts, k *
Dd	de	d
Ee	uh	uh*
Ff	ef	f
Gg	ge	G
Hh	Ha	X *
II	And	i, th*
Jj	yot	th*
Kk	ka	To *
Ll	ale	l" 1 *
mm	Em	m
Nn	en	n
Oo	O	O
Pp	pe	P
Qq	ku	sq *
Rr	er	R
Ss	es	s, s
Tt	te	t, ts *
Uu	at	y, v *
Vv	ve	in, at *
Xx	X	ks
Yy	upsilon	and, and German 2 *
Zz	zeta	h
1. A comma at the top right after the sound symbol means that the sound is soft. 2. Similar sound in the words buvar [b "ivar", bureau [b "iro"]. * This sign marks sounds whose pronunciation requires special attention.

Latin is a dead language, i.e. Currently, there are no people for whom this language is their native language. The living pronunciation of the classical period of the development of Latin 1 has not reached us. It is hardly possible to restore the exact Latin pronunciation; therefore, every people who uses the Latin language (in particular, using it in jurisprudence) is guided by the pronunciation of their native language when pronouncing Latin words (the English read the Latin word with English pronunciation, the Russians - with Russian, etc.). Therefore, the letters indicated in the table should be read “as in Russian” (unless their reading is specifically stated) [Period 1st century. BC. Cicero, Caesar and other prominent writers worked in this era; their language is considered a model of Latin. When studying the Latin language, this pattern is not used as a guide.]

Features of reading Latin vowels

Letter Ee reads as [e] 2 (not [ye] !): ego [e "go] I.

Letter II read [and] except when it comes before a vowel at the beginning of a syllable or word. Then it reads like [th]: ira [i"ra] anger, but ius [yus] right, adiuvo [adyu"vo] I help.

In a number of publications, the letter i, which was included in the Latin alphabet in the 16th century, is used to denote the sound [th]. It is also used in our manual. So ius = jus etc.

The letter Yy appears in words of Greek origin. It reads like [and] or, more precisely, like the German b: lyra [l "ira], [l "ira].

There are 2 diphthongs in Latin: au and eu. They consist of two elements that are pronounced together, “in one sound,” with the emphasis on the first element (cf. diphthongs in English).

aurum [arum] [The sign of square brackets indicates that they contain a sound and not a letter (i.e., that we have a transcription). All transcription signs in our manual are Russian (unless they are specifically noted).] gold

Europa[eropa] Europe

Letter combination ae reads like [e]: aes[es] copper; letter combination oe- like the German ts [A similar sound will be made if you pronounce the sound [e] and lower the corners of your mouth to the bottom.]: poena[ptsna] punishment.

If in these two combinations the vowels are pronounced separately, then an e is placed above the letter - or .. (i.e. _, ё): a_r / aёr[a"er] air, po_ta / poeta poet[poe"ta].

Vowel Uu, as a rule, denotes the sound [y]. However, in words Suavis[sva"vis] sweet, nice; suadeo[sva"deo] I advice ; suesco[sve"sko] I am getting used to and their derivatives - combination su reads like [sv].

Group ngu reads [ngv]: lingua[l "ingva] language .

Features of reading Latin consonants

Letter Cs before e, ae, oe(i.e. before the sounds [e] and [o]) and i, y(i.e. before the sounds [u] and [b]) is read as [ts]: Cicero[pica] Cicero. In other cases With reads like [k]: credo[kre "do] I believe .

Letter Hh gives a sound similar to "Ukrainian" G"; it is obtained if you pronounce [x] with a voice, and is denoted by the Greek letter i (this sound is present in the words yeah! And God![io"spod"i]).

In words, usually borrowed from Greek, the following combinations of consonants with the letter are found: h :

ph[f] philosophus[philo"sophus] philosopher

ch[X] charta[ha"rta] paper

th[T] theater[tea "trum] theater

rh[R] arrha[a"rra] deposit

Letter Kk used very rarely: in the word Kalendae and its abbreviation K. (it is also possible to write using With), as well as in the name Kaeso[ke "so] Quezon .

Latin Ll pronounced softly: lex[l "ex] law .

Letter Qq used only in combination with the letter u ( qu). This combination reads [kv]: quaestio[kve "stio] question .

Letter Ss reads like [s]: saepe[s "epe] often. In the position between vowels it is read as [z]: case[ka"zus] case, case(in grammar), except for Greek words: philosophus[philo"sophus] philosopher .

Letter Tt read [t]. Collocation ti read as [qi] if followed by a vowel: etiam[etsiam] even .

Combination ti reads like [ti]:

a) if it’s a vowel i in this combination it is long (for the length of vowels, see below): totius[totius] - R. p., units. hours from totus whole, whole ;

b) if before ti costs s, t or x(i.e. in combinations sti, tti, xti): bestia[bestia] beast ;Attis[a"ttius] Attius(Name); mixtio[mixtio] mixing .

c) in Greek words: Miltiades[mil"ti"ades] Miltiades .

Long and short vowels

Vowel sounds in the Latin language differ in the duration of their pronunciation. There were long and short vowels: a long vowel was pronounced twice as long as a short one.

The longitude of a sound is indicated by the sign - above the corresponding letter, shortened by the sign Ш:

+ ("and long") - - ("and short")

_ ("e long") - _ (“e short”), etc.

When reading Latin texts, we pronounce long and short vowels with the same duration, without distinguishing between them. However, the rules determining the length/shortness of vowels need to be known, because :

· there are pairs of words that have different meanings, but completely coincide in spelling and pronunciation (homonyms) and differ only in the length and shortness of the vowel: m_lum evil - m_lum apple ;

· the length or shortness of a vowel significantly affects the placement of stress in a word.

Placing stress in a word

The last syllable of a word is not stressed in Latin.

In two-syllable words, the stress falls on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word: sci"-o I know, cu"l-pa wine .

In polysyllabic words, stress is determined by the length (shortness) of the 2nd syllable from the end of the word. It falls:

on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word, if it is long;

to the 3rd syllable from the end of the word, if the 2nd syllable is short.

Long and short syllables

Long syllables are syllables that contain a long vowel, short syllables are those that contain a short vowel.

In Latin, as in Russian, syllables are formed using vowels, around which consonants are “grouped.”

NB - a diphthong represents one sound and therefore forms only one syllable: ca"u-sa reason, guilt. (NB - Nota bene! Remember well! - Latin designation for notes.)

Long vowels include:

Diphthongs and combinations ae And oe: cen-tau-rus centaur ;

vowel before a group of consonants (except for vowels before the group muta cum liquida (see below): in-stru-m_n-tum tool .

This is the so-called longitude by position.

o a vowel can be long in nature, i.e. its length is not determined by any reasons, but is a linguistic fact. Longitude by position is recorded in dictionaries: for-tk"-na fortune.

Short vowels include:

o vowels that come before another vowel (so in all words ending in io, ia, ium, uo etc., stress falls on the 3rd syllable from the end): sci-e"n-tia knowledge ;

o before h: tra-ho I'm dragging.

This is the so-called brevity by position:

o vowels coming before a combination of one of the consonants: b, p, d, t, c[k], g(the so-called “mute” - muta) - with one of the consonants: r, l(so-called “liquid” - liquida), i.e. before combinations br,pr,dl and so on. ("mute with smooth" - muta cum liquida): te"-n_-brae darkness, darkness ;

o the vowel may be short in nature, i.e. its brevity is not determined by external reasons, but is a fact of language. The brevity of the position is recorded in dictionaries: fe"-m--na woman .

References

Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Textbook of the Latin language. 2nd ed. M., 1985.

Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.

Kozarzhevsky A.I. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1948.

Sobolevsky S.I. Latin grammar. M., 1981.

Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1956.

Latin alphabet (table), diphthongs, word stress, letter combinations, pronunciation in Latin.

The Latin alphabet has changed its composition throughout the history of the development of the Latin language. The very first alphabet consisted of 21 letters, then new letters began to be added in different eras. Some of them have fallen out of use, others remain. The result was the classical Latin alphabet, consisting of 23 letters (some of which were given by the Greek language).

After the disappearance of the Roman Empire as a state, the Latin alphabet remained the basis for almost all languages ​​of Europe, but in each of the variants there were some changes (the Romance languages ​​that were closest to the classical version of the Latin alphabet were Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, French).

The modern Latin alphabet consists of 25 letters (if with the letter W, then 26). The letters of the Latin alphabet can be found in the table below:

Uppercase	Lowercase	Name	Pronunciation
			[G]*
			[l]**
			[To]***

In Latin the following are written with a capital letter:

1. proper names;
2. names of nationalities and months of the year;
3. adjectives formed from proper names, as well as adverbs: Graecia Antiqua - Ancient Greece, Craece scribere - write in Greek

Diphthongs, letter combinations and pronunciation in Latin

The following diphthongs exist in Latin:

ae – pronunciation is similar to the Russian sound [e]

oe – pronounced like the German ö umlaut or the French diphthong, as in peur

au – similar to a combination of Russian sounds [ау]

ei – reads like [hey]

eu – similar to the sound of Russian sounds [eu]

It is worth noting that if one of the letters in a combination of diphthongs has two dots or a quantity sign, then the sounds in this combination will be pronounced separately: po ë ta, poēta

The letter “c” in Latin is read as [k]: crocodilus, cultura, colonia (knees)

The letter “c” + e, i, y, ae, eu, oe is read as the sound [ts]: Cicero, Cyprus, caelum (tselum)

* The letter h is similar in pronunciation to the Ukrainian sound [g]: humus (humus)

“J” - read as [th]: major. If a word begins with this letter, it is usually merged with the following vowel and pronounced as one sound: Januarius, Juppiter.

** The letter “l” is similar in pronunciation to [la, l]: Latinus (latinus), luna (lune).

l + i gives the sound [li], for example: liber (liber).

*** The letter “q” is always found in the combination qu + consonant and is read as [kv]: quadratus (quadratus). The exception is the word quum (godfather). In many publications you can find this word written as cum.

The letter “s” in Latin is read as: universitas (universitas), if the letter “s” is between two vowels, then it is pronounced as [z]: Asia (Asia).

Please note that the combination of letters ti + vowel is read as [qi]: constitution (constitution). Exceptions are: the word totius (totius), as well as s, x, t + ti, for example: ostium (ostium), Bruttium (bruttium), in Greek words, for example: Boeotia (boeotia).

Pronunciation of letter combinations: ngu and su:

ngu + vowel is read as [ngv]: lingua (lingua)

su + vowel is read as [sv], for example: suadeo (swadeo)

Accent in Latin

In words that consist of two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end: r osa. In words that have more than two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end if it is long: nat u ra. If it is short - on the third from the end: f a brica.

Word + particles que, ve, ne shift the stress to the last syllable of a given word, for example: r osa, but ros a que. If que is part of a word, then the stress is placed according to the general rule: it a que.

In the next article we will look at pronouns in Latin.

There are 25 letters in the Latin alphabet: 7 vowels (a, e, i, j, o, u, y) and 18 consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z).

In botanical literature, all names are written with a capital letter, except for the specific and subspecific epithet in the names of species and subspecies.

Remember the pronunciation features of vowels, diphthongs and some consonants. Translate the names of plants given as examples into Russian.

Features of vowel pronunciation

The vowel sounds [a] [and] [u] are pronounced as in Russian:

A a– [a]: Acacia, Acer, Adonis, Agava etc.

I i– [and]: Angelica, Valeriana, Digitalis etc.

O o– [o]: Solanum, Fagopirum, Grossularia etc.

U u– [y]: Leonurus, Luzula, Muscari etc.

E e -[e]: the consonant sound before [e] is always pronounced firmly: Berberis, Gerbera, Geranium

Jj- [th]: written at the beginning of the syllable before the vowel and softens it: Juncus, Juniperus etc.

Yy - [And]: written in words of Greek origin: Hydrastis, Myrtus, Lychnis, Lysimachia, Symphytum etc.

Diphthongs. A diphthong is a sound consisting of two vowels:

ae Crataegus, Aegopodium, Aeonium, Aerva, Aesculus etc.

[ uh]

oe Boehmeria, Oenothera, Oenanthe etc.

In cases where the vowels “ae” and “oe” need to be pronounced separately, put a section sign “..”: Aloе

au-[aw]: Laurus, Rauvolfia

eu-[ew]: Eucommia, Eucalyptus etc.

Features of the pronunciation of some consonants

C c – [ts] or [ To]:

[ts] is pronounced before the sounds [ uh] And [ And]: officinale, Cirsium, Citrus, Cereus, Cetraria, Cerasus etc.

[To] pronounced in all other cases: Caulerpa, Carum, Carica, Canna, Cladonia, Conium etc.

Hh – [G']: pronounced with thick aspiration: Hyosciamus, Hevea, Hibiscus etc.

Kk – [To]: written in words of non-Latin origin: Kalanchoе, Kalopanax, Kniphofia etc.

Ll – [l]: pronounced softly: Lamiaceae, Secale etc.

Qq– written only in combination with [ u] and in position before other vowels it is pronounced [ kv]: Quercus, Aquilegia

Ss – [With] or [z]:

[h] is pronounced in the position between vowels and in combination with – m- - n- Rosa, Rosmarinus etc .

[With] pronounced in all other cases: Asparagus, Asplenium, Aster etc.

Xx– pronounced [ ks]: Panax, radix, cortex etc

Zz – [h]: written in words of Greek origin: Leuzea, Zea, Oryza, Zingiber etc.

Exceptions are words of German, Italian and other origins: Zincum etc.

Memorize Latin and Greek letter combinations and their pronunciation. Translate into Russian the names of plants given as examples.

Latin and Greek letter combinations

ti– before vowels it is pronounced [ qi], but after s, t, x pronounced like [ti]: Lallemantia, Nicotiana, but Neottia

- ngu– before vowels it is pronounced [ ngv]: Sanguisorba

-su- reads like [ St.]: Suaeda, Suillus etc

-ch- pronounced like [ X]: Chamomilla, Arachis, Chenopodium, Chondrilla etc.

-sch- reads like [ cx], not [sh.]: Schizandra, Schoenoplectus, Schoenus etc.

-rh- pronounced [r]: Rhamnus, Rhizobium, Rhododendron, Rheum, Rhinanthus etc.

-th- pronounced as [t]: Thymus, Thea, Thlaspi, Thladiantha etc.

-ph- pronounced [f]: Phellodendron, Phacelia Phaseolus etc.

Latin accent rules

The number of syllables in a word is equal to the number of vowels; Diphthong vowels form one syllable:

Salvia – Sal-vi-a- 3 syllables

Althaea – Al-thae-a – 3 syllables

Eucalyptus – Eu-ca-lyp-tus – 4 syllables

in words that consist of two syllables, the stress never falls on the last syllable: fungus, labor, tuber, herba, Crocus etc.

In words that consist of three or more syllables, the stress may fall on the second or third syllable from the end:

Foe-ni-cu-lum, me-di-ca-men-tum

The place of stress depends on the length and or shortness of the second syllable from the end of the word:

If the second syllable is long, it will be stressed;

If the second syllable is short, then the stress moves to the third syllable;

A syllable is long if:

A vowel comes before two or more consonants, -x- or -z-:

exst`actum, Schiz`andra, Or`yza

contains a diphthong:

Spir`aea, Crat`aegus, Alth`aea

contains a long vowel sound, which is always marked in the dictionary with a longitude sign (-):

Urtica, Solanum

A syllable is short if:

A vowel comes before another vowel:

Polem`onium, Hipp`ophaе,

Contains a short vowel, which is marked in the dictionary with a short sign (~)

`Ephedra, V`iola

Usually in dictionaries there is no sign for brevity, and longitude

put:

Familiarize yourself with Latin botanical nomenclature. Answer, what is the main botanical category?

How can a species epithet be expressed and what features of a plant can it indicate?

Latin botanical nomenclature. Species name

In modern botanical nomenclature, the binomial principle of designating plant species has been adopted, which was introduced in the 18th century. Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Rules for the design of Latin plant names are regulated International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. According to these rules, the main botanical category is viewSpecies. The name of the species consists of two words: the name of the genus and the specific epithet. Name sort ofGenus is a noun in the nominative singular case. In the botanical name of a plant, it always comes first and is written with a capital letter. Specific epithetNomen specificum- this is a definition that indicates a characteristic characteristic of a given plant species. The specific epithet comes in second place and is written with a lowercase letter. If a specific epithet consists of two words, they are written with a hyphen.

1. A specific epithet, expressed by a definition, can indicate various distinctive features:

a) – flowering time:

Adonis vernalis – spring adonis, adonis

Convallaria majalis – May lily of the valley

Colchicum autumnale – autumn crocus

b) – appearance, color, structural features and other features:

Anethum graveolens – fragrant dill

Galeopsis speciosa – beautiful pikulnik

Hyoscyamus niger – black henbane

Cicuta virosa – poisonous

Centaurea cyanus – blue cornflower

c) – habitat:

Arachis hypogaea – groundnut, peanut

Trifolium montanum – mountain clover

Ledum palustre - marsh rosemary

Lathyrus pratensis – meadow chin

Anthriscus sylvestris – forest sedum

Festuca pratensis – meadow fescue

Caltha palustris – marsh marigold

Quercus petraea – sessile oak

d) – geographical distribution:

Acacia arabica - Arabian acacia

Anacardium occidentale – western anacardium

Hamamelis virginiana

Hevea brasiliensis - Hevea brasiliensis

Hydrastis canadensis – goldenseal

Bunias orientalis

Trollius europaeus – European swimsuit

e) – absence of characteristic signs:

Barbarea vulgaris – common cress

Artemisia vulgaris – common wormwood

Hordeum vulgaris – common barley

2. A specific epithet can be expressed as a noun

Atropa belladonna

Carica papaya – melon tree

Theobroma cacao – chocolate tree

Punica granatum – pomegranate tree

Panax ginseng – Panax ginseng

Salsola richteri

3. The specific epithet can be expressed in two words:

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – bearberry

Capsella bursa-pastoris – shepherd's purse

Vaccinium vittis idaea – common lingonberry

Remember the Latin names of taxa.

Names of taxa of botanical classification

All plants are united into subordinate systematic groups - taxa, specific genera, families, orders, classes, divisions:

View - species – genus name + specific epithet

Genus - genus– noun in the nominative case

Subfamily – subfamilia– base + (o) ideae

Family – familia– base + ceae

Order – ordo– base + ales

Subclass – subclassic– base + idae

Class - classic– base + opsida

Department - divisio– base + (o) phyta

Examples:

Family names:

Fabaceae – legumes

Poaceae - bluegrass

Lamiaceae – Lamiaceae

Order names:

Cucurbitales – pumpkin

Piperales - peppers

Theales – teahouses

Subclass names:

Caryophyllidae – caryophyllides

Liliidae - liliids,

Asteridae - asterids,

Class names:

Liliopsida – monocots

Magnoliopsida – dicotyledons

using the example of a rosehip species

Taxonomic	Taxa
	Plants
	Angiosperms Magnoliophyta
	Dicotyledons Magnoliopsida
Subclass	Rosidae
	Pink Rosales
Family	Pink Rosaceae
	Rose (rose hip) Rosa
	Rose of May (rose hips) Rosa majalis

Briefdictionary of botanical terms

Abaxial – off-axis

Agrocenosis, or agrophytocenosis- an artificial agricultural plant community created by man when sowing or planting cultivated plants.

Adaxial– directed towards the axis.

Azonal vegetation- vegetation that does not form an independent zone anywhere, but is found in a number of zones, for example, water meadows.

Androecium- the collection of stamens of a flower.

Anemophilia– wind pollination.

Anemochoria– distribution of fruits, seeds and other diasporas by air currents.

Anthropophytes, anthropophilic plants - constantly found in phytocenoses or agrocenses due to unconscious or intentional human influence. These include weeds, native plants and plants cultivated by humans.

Antecology - flower and ecology; ecology of flower and bloom. Anteclogical studies include the production of nectar, pollen, and seeds.

Apomixis– the formation of an embryo without fertilization – from an unfertilized egg (parthenogenesis), from gametophyte cells (apogamy) or from other cells.

Apoplast– a set of interfibrillar spaces of cell membranes and intercellular spaces through which free transport of water-soluble substances occurs.

Area- part of the earth's surface within which the species is distributed.

Areola- a small area of ​​leaf mesophyll, limited by small intersecting veins.

Arilus- acetum, a formation characteristic of the seeds of many flowering plants and consisting either of succulent tissues, or having the appearance of a film or fringe; develops in various parts of the seed.

Aspect– the appearance of the phytocenosis, changing throughout the year in accordance with the alternation of phases of plant development. Aspects are named based on the color of the aspectual species.

Plant association– the basic unit of vegetation classification, which is a set of homogeneous phytocenoses.

Autecology– the science of the adaptability of individual plant species to living conditions.

Aerenchyma- air-bearing plant tissue containing large intercellular spaces.

Biogeocenosis– a homogeneous area of ​​the earth’s surface with a certain composition of living and inert components, united by metabolism and energy into a single natural complex, i.e. This is an ecosystem within the boundaries of one phytocenosis.

Biomorphs– life forms of plants, determined by their genetic nature, growth form and biological rhythm.

Biotope- a territory with homogeneous ecological conditions, occupied by a certain biocenosis and serving as a habitat for one or another species of plants or animals.

Botanical geography– the science of the patterns of geographical distribution of vegetation cover on the earth's surface.

Vacuole- a cavity in a cell surrounded by a membrane - tonoplast, filled with cell sap.

Velamen- a multilayered epidermis that covers the aerial roots of some tropical epiphytic orchids and aroids, as well as some terrestrial monocots.

Age composition of the population – distribution of individuals of the coenotic population by age and development phases. There are latent, juvenile, virginile, generating, and senile individuals.

Halophytes- plants adapted to living in saline soils.

Gametogenesis– the process of formation of sex cells – gametes.

Heliophytes– light-loving plants that cannot tolerate shade.

Helophytes– plants of shallow waters and waterlogged shores of reservoirs, a transitional group between hydrophytes and terrestrial plants; in the narrow sense - swamp plants.

Hemicryptophytes– perennial grasses with dying above-ground shoots, the renewal buds of which are located at the level of the soil surface.

Geotropism- the orientation of the axial organs of plants - shoots and roots, caused by the unilateral action of gravity. Positive geotropism of the root causes its growth to be directed towards the center of the earth, negative geotropism of the shoot - from the center.

Geophytes– plants whose renewal buds are located below the soil level.

Hygrophytes– terrestrial plants growing in conditions of high soil and air humidity.

Hydrophytes- plants that live in aquatic environments.

Gynoecium- a collection of carpels of a flower.

Hypocotyl- the axial part of the embryo and seedling, located between the cotyledons and the root.

Homeostasis in plants– relative constancy and stability of internal metabolic factors and basic physiological functions in changing environmental conditions. Homeostasis ensures the maintenance of vital functions and the consistent implementation of ontogenesis under various fluctuations in external conditions.

Double fertilization – a type of fertilization characteristic of angiosperms in which one of the sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote, giving rise to the seed embryo, and the other sperm fuses with the diploid nucleus of the central cell to form a triploid nucleus, giving rise to the endosperm.

Diaspora – unit of dissemination, a naturally separated part of a plant that serves for its reproduction and dispersal.

Dominants– predominant plant species in phytocenoses.

Sapwood- the outer part of the wood of a stem or root, containing living cells and storage substances and conducting water.

Ovary– the lower part of the carpel or gynoecium, consisting of fused carpels; contains ovules and differentiates into a fruit.

Zoochoria– distribution of seeds, fruits and other plant diaspores by animals.

Variability- the property of plants to deviate in their characteristics and in the characteristics of individual development from the parental forms. Variability is distinguished genotypic caused by changes in gene and chromosomal structures - mutations - or resulting from a new combination of parental genes in a daughter organism, and phenotypic– modification variability of gene manifestation during the implementation of hereditary information in different external conditions.

Callose– a polysaccharide that forms glucose upon hydrolysis, a component of the cell wall in sieve elements.

Callus- tissue consisting of large thin-walled, meristematically active cells, formed as a result of plant damage in healing wounds and grafts, as well as in tissue culture.

Carpella, carpel- the same as the carpel.

Cell wall– a structural formation on the periphery of a plant cell, gives strength and shape to the cell, limits the size of the protoplast and protects it. It is a product of the vital activity of protoplast.

Cell sap-aqueous solution of various substances; Contained in the vacuole, it is a product of the vital activity of the protoplast.

Coleoptile- a vaginal leaf-like formation, shaped like a cone-shaped closed cap, surrounding the epicotyl and embryonic bud in cereals.

Coleorhiza- membranous sheath around the root of the cereal embryo.

Collenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of living cells with unevenly thickened cell walls that never become lignified.

Root– the main vegetative organ of a plant, anchoring the plant in the substrate and providing soil nutrition (absorbs water and minerals from the soil).

Root cap– formation covering the apical meristem of the root in the form of a cap; its tissues perform important functions. Sometimes a synonym for “root cap” is the term “calyptra” - cap, lid.

Spine– embryonic main root; forms the basal continuation of the hypocotyl in the embryo.

Cosmopolitans- plants and animals found in most of the inhabited regions of the Earth.

Cryptophytes– perennial grasses in which renewal buds are located below the soil level or under water (geophytes, helophytes, hydrophytes).

Xerophytes- plants adapted to life in arid habitats.

Xylem– conductive tissue of plants (wood), which provides an upward flow of water with dissolved minerals from the root to the shoot.

Cuticle- a lipophilic film covering the surface of the epidermis in plants.

Lignification– impregnation of cell membranes with lignin.

Sheet- a lateral organ of a plant that performs the functions of photosynthesis, transpiration and gas exchange.

Sheet mosaic– mutual arrangement of leaves, thanks to which they do not shade each other. It is especially evident in shade-tolerant plants and represents an adaptation in low light conditions.

Lithophytes– plants of rocky habitats.

Mesophytes– plants adapted to life in conditions of average water supply

Meristems– educational tissues whose cells retain the ability to divide for a long time.

Mosaic– horizontal heterogeneity of phytocenoses and their division into smaller structures.

Morphogenesis– morphogenesis, the formation of morphological structures and the entire organism in the process of ontogenesis.

Nastia– non-directional movements of organs relative to the axis of fixedly attached plants in response to changes in diffusely acting external factors (light-darkness, heat-cold).

Nyctinastic movements- movements of organs caused by the change of day and night, as well as changes in temperature (thermonasty), or light intensity (photonasty), or both.

Norm of reaction– hereditarily determined amplitude of possible changes in the implementation of the genotype. The reaction norm determines the number and nature of possible phenotype variants, or modifications, under different environmental conditions.

Nucellus– the central part of the ovule, in which the embryo sac develops, is usually considered to be a homologue of the megasporangium.

Abundance– number of individuals based on visual assessment in points of a particular scale

Ontogenesis, or individual development– the whole complex of consistent and irreversible changes in the life activity and structure of a plant from its emergence from a zygote or any diaspora to natural death due to aging. Ontogenesis is the consistent implementation of the hereditary program for the development of a plant organism in specific environmental conditions.

Pollination- the process of transferring pollen from the anthers to the stigma.

Organism as a system– a plant as an integral system with several subordinate levels of organization - organismal, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular. Regulation of the growth and development of the entire organism is carried out through the integration of processes occurring at all levels, interconnected by numerous direct and feedback connections.

Pericarp- the same as the pericarp.

Periodization of ontogeny– a set of stages and life states of plants (according to Uranov, 1975)

Plasmolysis– the process by which the cytoplasm is separated from the cell membrane. Occurs due to loss of water by the cell.

Plastids- double-membrane organelles of a plant cell. Contain circular DNA, ribosomes, enzymes. There are three types of mature plastids: chloroplasts, leucoplasts and chromoplasts.

Fetus- the reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants, develops from a flower and contains seeds.

The escape– the main vegetative organ of a plant, performing the functions of aerial nutrition, consists of a stem, leaves and buds.

Polarity– a specific orientation of processes and structures in space characteristic of plants, leading to the emergence of morphophysiological gradients and expressed in differences in properties at opposite ends or sides of cells, tissues, organs and the entire plant.

Population- a collection of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain territory, freely interbreeding and, to a certain extent, isolated from neighboring populations.

Protoplast– living contents of the cell, cytoplasm with nucleus.

Development– qualitative changes in the structure and functions of the plant and its individual parts - organs, tissues and cells, arising in the process of ontogenesis.

Vegetation– a set of plant communities, or phytocenoses, of the Earth or its individual regions.

Relics- species of plants and animals that have been preserved in modern ecosystems as remnants of disappeared floras and faunas of past geological eras and are in some inconsistency with modern conditions of existence.

Height– an irreversible quantitative increase in body size, volume and weight associated with the formation of new body structures.

Seismonastic movements- movements of organs that occur in response to shocks and tremors experienced by plants. Characteristic of flowers of Asteraceae and leaves of Mimosa pudica.

Seed coat- the cover of the seed, in the formation of which integuments and sometimes other parts of the ovule take part.

Seed– organ of reproduction and dispersal of seed plants.

Simplast– a set of interconnected protoplasts of plant cells and their plasmodesmata.

Scarification- a technique that accelerates the germination of hard seeds, consisting of scratching the seed coat without damaging the embryo.

Sclerenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of dead cells with uniformly thickened lignified cell walls.

Infertility- a collection of fruits frolicking from one inflorescence

Sporogenesis– the process of formation of spores – microspores (microsporogenesis) and megaspores (megasporogenesis).

Stem– shoot axis, consists of internodes and nodes.

Seed stratification- a technique that accelerates their development and germination. It consists of preliminary keeping the seeds on a moist substrate.

succession– unidirectional replacement of some plant communities (biogeocenoses, ecosystems) by others over time.

Taxis– directed movements of the whole organism, caused by the unilateral influence of external stimuli, gravity, light, and chemical exposure.

Therophytes– annual plants that tolerate unfavorable seasons in the form of seeds.

Tonoplast- membrane that bounds the vacuole.

Tropisms– oriented movements of organs of fixedly attached plants in response to the unilateral action of external factors (light, gravity, etc.).

Phanerophytes– trees and shrubs that have open renewal buds high above the ground.

Phenotype- the entire complex of external and internal signs and properties of an organism, manifested during its ontogenesis. The phenotype is the result of the implementation of the genotype under certain environmental conditions.

Plant phylogeny– the process of evolutionary development of plant organisms belonging to a specific taxon. Phylogeny consists of the historical sequence of related ontogenies.

Phytocenosis (plant community)- a historically established stable collection of various plant species in a certain area of ​​the territory. A phytocenosis is characterized by certain relationships between its constituent plant species, as well as between plant species and environmental conditions.

Phloem– conductive plant tissue (bast), which provides a downward flow of water with organic substances (assimilates) from leaves to roots, flowers, fruits and growing shoots.

Photoperiodism– the reaction of plants to the ratio of the length of day and night, expressed in changes in the processes of growth and development and associated with the adaptation of ontogenesis to seasonal changes in external conditions. One of the main manifestations of photoperiodism is the photoperiodic reaction of plant flowering.

Phototropism- orientation of the axial organs of the plant - shoots and roots - to one-sided illumination, expressed in directional growth or bending towards the light (positive phototropism of the stem) or away from the light (negative phototropism of the root).

Chalaza- the basal part of the ovule, in which the integuments originate and at the base of which the vascular bundle coming from the funiculus ends or branches.

Chamephytes- plants whose shoots do not die off in the winter; renewal buds are located close to the soil surface and protected by litter and snow cover.

Chlorenchyma– chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma (assimilation tissue), photosynthetic tissue consisting of cells with many chloroplasts; performs the function of photosynthesis.

Flower– reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants

Cytoplasm- part of the cell located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; hyaloplasm with organelles.

Cuttings- a method of vegetative propagation of plants using cuttings - parts of a stem, leaf or root separated from the plant. Accordingly, stem, leaf and root cuttings are distinguished.

Shield- cotyledon (or part of the cotyledon) of the cereal embryo, specialized for nutrients from the endosperm.

Environmental factors– environmental conditions affecting the growth, development and distribution of plants. Environmental factors include climatic (temperature, light, air, water), soil, relief, as well as the impact of other plants, animals and humans on plants.

Ecotop– a set of abiotic conditions of the inert environment of a given area, which represents the habitat of a particular community.

Endemics– species of plants and animals limited in their distribution to a certain territory.

Epiblast- a small membranous outgrowth located opposite the scutellum in the embryo of cereals.

Epiblema- single-layer covering tissue of a young root bearing root hairs.

Epicotyl- the shoot part of the embryo or seedling above the cotyledon or cotyledons, consisting of an axis ending in an apical meristem and leaf primordia.

Epiphytes– plants that settle on other plants and use them exclusively as a substrate for attachment.

Ephemeroids– perennial herbaceous plants, which, like ephemerals, are characterized by a short growing season.

Ephemera- annual herbaceous plants that complete a full development cycle in a very short and usually wet period.

Nuclear envelope- a double-membrane membrane surrounding the cell nucleus.

Nucleolus- a dense body located inside the nucleus, not separated from the nuclear juice by a shell. Consists of granular and fibrillar components. Contains protein, DNA and RNA.

Tiering– vertical division of the plant community into elements of different composition and density.

References

1. Suvorov V.V., Voronova I.N. Botany with basics of geobotany / V.V. Suvorov, I.N. Voronova. - 3rd ed. - M.: ARIS, 2012. - 520 p.

2. Andreeva I.I. Botany / I.I. Andreeva, L.S. Rodman. – 3, 4th ed. - M.: KolosS, 2010. – 488 p.

3. Yakovlev G.P. Botany: textbook for universities / G.P. Yakovlev, V.A. Chelombitko, V.I. Dorofeev; edited by R.V. Camelina. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional – St. Petersburg: SpetsLit, 2008. – 689 p.

4. Guidelines for the study of botanical nomenclature / N.M. Naida. – St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State Agrarian University, 2008. – 16 p.

5. Botanical geography with the basics of plant ecology. Textbook for universities / V.G. Khrzhanovsky, S.V. Viktorov, P.V. Litvak, B.S. Rodionov, L.S. Rodman. - 2nd, revised. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1994. – 240 s.

6. Terminology of growth and development of higher plants / M.Kh.Chailakhyan, R.G.Butenko, O.N.Kulaeva. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – 96 p.

In the 5th century BC e. Latin language(self-name Lingua Latina) was one of the many Italic languages ​​spoken in central Italy. Latin was used in the area known as Latium (modern name is Latium), and Rome was one of the cities in this area. The earliest inscriptions in Latin date back to the 6th century. BC e. and are made using an alphabet based on the Etruscan script.

Gradually, Rome's influence spread to other parts of Italy, and through them to Europe. Over time, the Roman Empire conquered Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Throughout the empire, Latin came to be used as the language of law and authority, and, increasingly, the language of everyday life. The Romans were literate, and many of them read the works of famous Latin authors.

Meanwhile, in the eastern Mediterranean, Greek remained the lingua franca, and educated Romans were bilingual. The earliest examples of Latin literature known to us are translations of Greek plays and Cato's agricultural manual into Latin, dating back to 150 BC. e.

Classical Latin, which was used in early works of Latin literature, differed in many ways from colloquial, so-called Vulgar Latin. However, some writers, including Cicero and Petronius, used Vulgar Latin in their writings. Over time, the spoken variants of the Latin language moved further and further away from the literary standard, and gradually, on their basis, Italic/Romance languages ​​(Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) appeared.

Even after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Latin continued to be used as a literary language in Western and Central Europe. A huge amount of medieval Latin literature appeared in a variety of styles - from scientific works of Irish and Anglo-Saxon writers to simple tales and sermons intended for the general public.

Throughout the 15th century. Latin began to lose its dominant position and title as the main language of science and religion in Europe. It has been largely replaced by written versions of local European languages, many of which are derived from or influenced by Latin.

Modern Latin was used by the Roman Catholic Church until the mid-20th century, and currently continues to exist to some extent, especially in the Vatican, where it is recognized as one of the official languages. Latin terminology is actively used by biologists, paleontologists and other scientists to name species and preparations, as well as by doctors and lawyers.

Latin alphabet

The Romans used only 23 letters to write Latin:

There were no lowercase letters in Latin. The letters I and V could be used as consonants and vowels. The letters K, X, Y and Z were used only to write words of Greek origin.

The letters J, U and W were added to the alphabet later to write languages ​​other than Latin.

The letter J is a variant of I and was first introduced into use by Pierre de la Ramais in the 16th century.

The letter U is a variant of V. In Latin, the sound /u/ was represented by the letter v, for example IVLIVS (Julius).

The letter W was originally a double v (vv) and was first used by Old English scribes in the 7th century, although the runic letter Wynn (Ƿ) was more commonly used to represent the /w/ sound in writing. After the Norman Conquest, the letter W became more popular and by 1300 had completely replaced Wynn.

Reconstructed phonetic transcription of classical Latin

Vowels and diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

• Vowel length was not shown in writing, although modern editions of classical texts use a macron (ā) to indicate long vowels.
• The pronunciation of short vowels in the medial position is different: E [ɛ], O [ɔ], I [ɪ] and V [ʊ].

Phonetic transcription of ecclesiastical Latin

Vowels

Diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

• Double vowels are pronounced separately
• C = [ʧ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [k] in any other positions
• G = [ʤ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [g] in any other positions
• H is not pronounced except in words mihi And nihil, where the sound /k/ is pronounced
• S = [z] between vowels
• SC = [ʃ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and in any other positions
• TI = before the vowel a and after all letters except s, t or x, and in any other positions
• U = [w] after q
• V = [v] at the beginning of a syllable
• Z = at the beginning of a word before vowels, and before consonants or at the end of a word.