One of the main properties of God is His omnipresence, so an Orthodox Christian can pray everywhere, in any place. But there are places of the exclusive presence of God, where the Lord is in a special, gracious way. Such places are called temples of God or churches. Temple there is a consecrated building in which believers praise God, thank Him for the benefits they have received and pray to Him for their needs. Central, most often the most majestic temples in which clergy from other nearby communities gather churches regarding general solemn services, are called cathedral, or simply cathedrals.
Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood. Saint Petersburg
According to subordination and location, temples are divided into:
Stauropegial– churches under the direct control of His Holiness the Patriarch and the Synod.
Cathedral- are the main churches for the ruling bishops of a particular diocese.
Parish– churches in which local parishes hold services.
Cemetery– located either on the territory of cemeteries or in close proximity to them. A special feature of cemetery churches is that funeral services are constantly performed here. The duty of local clergy is to perform lithiums and memorial services for those buried in the cemetery at the request of relatives.
Temple building has its own, established over the centuries, architectural appearance with its deep symbolism. The main symbolic meaning acquired by an Orthodox church is Kingdom of God in the unity of its three areas: Divine, heavenly and earthly. This determines the most common three-part division of the temple: altar, the temple itself And porch("or meal). These three parts of the Orthodox church mark different areas of existence: altar – region existence of God, actually temple - region angelic world And porch - region earthly existence. All three parts of the temple in their totality represent the image of the entire universe headed by God, its Creator and Creator.
The history of Orthodox churches
The first Orthodox church, according to the Gospel, was Zion Upper Room. Before His crucifixion, the Lord commanded the disciples to find a large upper room, furnished, ready() and prepare everything you need to celebrate the Jewish Passover. The Last Supper of the Lord Jesus Christ with His disciples took place in this upper room. Here Christ washed the disciples’ feet and Himself celebrated the first Eucharist - the Sacrament of transforming bread and wine into His Body and Blood. At the same time, the Lord commanded the apostles, and through them all Christians, to do the same and in the same way in His memory.
Zion's Upper Room - prototype of a Christian temple, as a specially designed room for prayer meetings, communion with God, the celebration of the sacraments and all Christian worship. IN Zion's Upper Room On the day of Pentecost, the apostles who gathered for prayer received what was promised to them. Descent of the Holy Spirit. This great event marked the beginning of the structure of the earthly Church of Christ. The first Christians continued to venerate the Old Testament Jewish temple, where they went to pray and preach the Gospel to Jews who had not yet believed, but they celebrated the New Testament Sacrament of the Eucharist in other premises, which were ordinary residential buildings at that time. In them, a room was allocated for prayer, the one farthest from the external entrance and street noise, called by the Greeks "ikosom", and the Romans "ecusom". By appearance icos were oblong (occasionally two-story) rooms, with columns along the length, sometimes dividing ikos into three parts; and the middle space ikosa could be higher and wider than the side ones.
The persecution of Christians by the Jews completely interrupted the connection of the apostles and their disciples with the Old Testament Temple, which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD. e.
Single-domed Church of Peter and Paul on Buyu, XIV-XVI centuries. Pskov
Temples in the form circle(a circle that has neither beginning nor end, symbolizes eternity) speaks of the infinity of the existence of the Church, its indestructibility in the world according to the word of Christ: I will create mine, and the gates of hell will not prevail against it().
Temples in the form eight-pointed star symbolize Star of Bethlehem, who led the Magi to the place where Christ was born. Thus, God testifies to its role as a guide to the life of the Future Age.
Five-domed Cathedral of Christ the Savior. Moscow
Temples in the form ship- the most ancient type of temple, figuratively expressing the idea that, like a ship, it saves believers from the disastrous waves of everyday sailing and leads them to the Kingdom of God.
Nine-domed Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God (St. Basil's Cathedral), mid-16th century. Moscow
Helmet-shaped dome of the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery, 15th century. Moscow
There were also mixed types temples connecting the above forms. For example, it is typical to mix the cruciform shape of the temple on the outside with a round shape on the inside. Or rectangular on the outside and round on the inside. The Church has preserved all these forms of church building to this day.
Onion-shaped dome at the Church of the Resurrection, 17th century. Kargopol
The buildings of all Orthodox churches are always completed domes which symbolize spiritual sky. Domes and, in turn, will certainly be crowned crosses as a sign of the redemptive victory of Christ. Orthodox cross, erected above the temple, has eight-pointed shape, sometimes at its base there is a crescent moon, which has many symbolic meanings assigned to it, one of which is anchor of Christian hope for salvation by faith in the merits of Christ on the cross. The eight ends of the Cross mean eight main periods in the history of mankind, where the eighth is the life of the Future Age.
The different number of chapters in a temple building is determined by who they are dedicated to.
Single-domed temple: the dome symbolizes the unity of God, the perfection of creation.
Double-domed temple: the two domes symbolize the two natures of the God-man Jesus Christ, the two areas of creation (angelic and human).
Three-domed temple: the three domes symbolize the Holy Trinity.
Four-domed temple: the four domes symbolize the Four Gospels, the four cardinal directions.
Five-domed temple: five domes, one of which rises above the rest, symbolize Christ as the Head of the Church and the four evangelists.
Seven Domed Temple: seven domes symbolize the seven Sacraments of the Church, seven Ecumenical Councils, seven virtues.
Nine-domed temple: nine domes symbolize the nine ranks of angels.
Thirteen-domed temple: thirteen domes symbolize Jesus Christ and the twelve apostles.
Form And dome color also have a symbolic meaning. For example, helmet-shaped symbolizes the spiritual battle that the Church has been waging against the forces of evil since its founding. Bulb shape symbolizes the flame of a candle, which the Gospel testifies to: And having lit a candle, they do not put it under a bushel, but on a lampstand, and it gives light to everyone in the house. So let your light shine before people, so that they may see your good deeds and glorify your Father in heaven.(). Unusual shape and bright coloring domes, such as Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood in St. Petersburg, speaks of the beauty of Heavenly Jerusalem.
By dome color it is also possible to determine to whom the temple is dedicated. Because the gold symbolizes Heavenly Glory, That domes turn golden at the temples dedicated Christ And twelve feasts (twelve main holidays of the church year, excluding the Feast of Easter). Domes blue with stars are evidence that the temple over which they were erected dedicated to the Virgin Mary, because the star recalls the birth of Christ from the Virgin Mary. Temples with green domes were dedicated Holy Trinity because green is the color of the Holy Spirit. Temples dedicated to saints, crowned as green, so and silver domes.
Since each temple is dedicated to God in memory of one or another sacred event or saint of God, it receives a corresponding name, for example: Trinity, Transfiguration, Ascension, Annunciation, Intercession, the Church of St. Nicholas, St. Sergius of Radonezh, the Church of the Holy Fathers of the Seven Ecumenical Councils and etc.
In addition, city and some other churches have a geographical “reference”: the Intercession, which is on the Moat; Nikola on Bolvanovka; Vmch. George in Endov.
congresses of higher Christian clergy church for resolving issues of doctrine, governance, discipline, for electing the highest. hierarchs, for their removal or trial (especially for the condemnation of heresies). The first C. s. (meetings of bishops of one metropolis) belong to the middle. 3rd century (Cappadocia, Carthage). From the 4th century C. s. are divided into 2 chapters. categories: ecumenical councils and local councils. Ecumenical councils are held with the participation of representatives of all independent local churches (local, national); have the right to develop articles of faith. Church rules (canons) established by ecumenical councils are the source of church (canonical) law and are recognized as binding for all local churches. The 1st Ecumenical Council was convened in 325 in Nicaea (for a list of councils, see article Ecumenical Councils). Local councils are congresses of bishops and other hierarchs of an independent local church or church. hierarchs of any particular administrative-geographical. region (metropolises, archbishoprics, patriarchates, states, provinces); are convened to resolve issues and matters arising within a given church, a given region, for which only the decisions of these councils are binding. However, the criteria for classifying a council as ecumenical or local are in fact not so clear. After the division of the churches, the papacy, which resumed the congresses of the highest. Catholic clergy churches, continued to call them “ecumenical” (although the Orthodox clergy did not participate in them). The Orthodox Church recognizes only the first 7 councils as ecumenical; the Council of Ephesus 449, essentially ecumenical, is not recognized as such by either Orthodoxy or Catholicism. In some cases, canons that became part of the general church. legislation recognized by both Orthodox and Catholic. churches an important source of canonical rights came not from ecumenical, but from local councils (the rules of the Council of Ancyra 314-315, the Council of Gangra about 340, the Council of Laodicea 364 and some other local councils). In the Russian state, especially in the 15th-17th centuries, local councils were constantly convened (although they were not formally called that); Among the most important are the Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 and the Council of 1666-67, which condemned the schism. Ecumenical councils of the 4th-9th centuries. convened by Emperor Vost. Rome. empire (Byzantium) and were presided over by him or his representative. In Byzantium by the 12th century. a special form of the Church of the Church has developed - “abiding council”: a permanent institution consisting of bishops and deacons of the Constantinople Church of St. who lived in Constantinople. Sofia. According to the type of “abiding cathedral”, cathedrals under the patriarchs were created in Russia, and in 1721 the Synod. T.n. ecumenical councils convened from the 12th century. Catholic church, were held under the leadership of Rome. dads; In addition to bishops, they were attended by abbots, theologians, and representatives of secular authorities (however, due to historical conditions, the influence of secular authorities on the Central Council of the Catholic Church is less noticeable than on the Central Council of the Orthodox Church). The Orthodox Church, unlike the Catholic Church, did not convene councils, which it called ecumenical (see Orthodox Church). In the Orthodox Church, the council is recognized as superior to the patriarch, who (despite the right to preside, a number of privileges and moral authority) is considered “first among equals.” In Catholic The church is held by the monarchy. principle: the authority of the pope is higher than the authority of ecumenical councils. During the period of strengthening of centralized national systems in Europe. state arose in the end. 14 - beginning 15th centuries the conciliar movement, which defended the principle of the supremacy of ecumenical councils over the pope, but it was defeated; The Council of Trent 1545-63, convened during the Counter-Reformation, consolidated the supreme power of the papacy in the church. Subsequently, the popes limited the composition of participants in ecumenical councils (bishops, heads of monastic orders, representatives of congregations). Aspiration Catholic. national churches towards independence from the papacy manifested itself in local churches. (thus, a council convened by the French clergy in 1682 adopted the “Declaration of the Gallican Clergy”, see Gallicanism). From the 16th century up to 2nd half. 19th century The papacy did not convene ecumenical councils. The Catholic Ecumenical Council was organized again. church only in 1869-70 (1st Vatican Council, see Vatican Council 1869-70). In 1962-65 the 2nd Vatican Council was convened. A. P. Kazhdan. Moscow.
At which issues of a doctrinal (dogmatic), church-political and judicial-disciplinary nature are discussed and decisions are made. The word itself - συνόδός, in Russian - cathedral, in Latin concilium, hence concile, Сoncilien, etc., means the path along which together they come to the same goal.
At the very beginning of the history of the Church, the term Σύνοδος was used in relation to any church meeting. However, during the 3rd century the term began to be used to refer to meetings of bishops (although not only bishops could be present) for the administration of the Church. The very first council was the Apostolic Council, held in Jerusalem around AD. (Acts Chapter XV). The earliest known local councils were held in the century, and by the century the assembly of provincial bishops had become the customary method of church government.
There are two types of councils: ecumenical and local. Ecumenical councils dealt with doctrinal and disciplinary issues concerning the entire Church; representatives of all local Churches were usually present at these councils. At local councils, issues of local importance are resolved, so the composition of participants is determined by the territory over which the jurisdiction of the council extends.
Different Christian denominations recognize a different number of councils with the meaning of ecumenical, and not all councils recognized as such in one of them are accepted with the same meaning in others.
Local(τοπικαί σύνοδοι), or private (S. particulares), councils are meetings of bishops of any one local, independent (autocephalous) church or any specific region of it (country, state, locality, province), compiled to resolve issues and affairs arising within its borders regarding doctrine, system, administration and discipline.
The division of the universal Christian church into local ones, as well as each local church into regions (dioceses), took place in history according to the conditions of time, place and circumstances and varied in different countries of the world; At the same time, the forms of organization and management of individual churches and their institutions also diversified. Councils or synods, as church institutions, were maintained in the structure of local churches, but not in the same form, undergoing various modifications in their private names, in organization, in the meaning and scope of their activities in different countries and churches and at different times, but with the preservation of the beginning collegiality. Therefore, in the universal Church, as in every local church, councils have their own history, the initial beginning of which is the legislation of the universal church of the first nine centuries of Christianity (the so-called era of the Ecumenical Councils).
Cathedrals are called
- by the cities in which they took place (Antioch, Sardicia, Arelat, Moscow, Basel, etc.),
- according to the geographical location of the churches whose representatives participated in them (cathedrals of the Eastern Church, Western Church),
- by the names of the churches into which they were part (cathedrals of the Church of Constantinople, Antioch, Roman, Carthaginian, etc.),
- by the names of the countries where they gathered (Spanish, Asia Minor),
- by nationality (cathedrals of Russian, Serbian, Romanian churches),
- by religion (cathedrals of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian-Gregorian, Lutheran churches),
- by titles of chairmen or church institutions (metropolitan, patriarchal, regional, monastic, diocesan),
- by composition of members (bishopric, national church, mixed),
- according to their number (great, small, large, lesser),
- by duration (temporary, permanent).
In ancient Russia there were temporary cathedrals, named after the cities where they gathered (Kyiv, Moscow); in the 17th century under the patriarchs there was a distinction between great cathedrals and “from the newly arrived” bishops in Moscow; under Peter, instead of temporary councils, a permanent “consecrated cathedral” was established under the locum tenens, and in the city - St. right synod, to which the powers of the patriarch were transferred. The convening of temporary councils ceased; Only the administrative institution of the Lavra retained the name “spiritual cathedral”. The practice of convening church councils in the Russian Church resumed only in the year when the Local Council was convened, which restored the patriarchate.
As has already been said, the decisions of local councils are binding only in the area whose representatives consisted of its members. The rules of some local councils of the ancient church, which expressed the general legal consciousness of the church, were, however, adopted by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Armenian churches as part of the general church legislation and therefore are still recognized as a source of law.
In all Orthodox Local Churches, the rules of Local Councils enjoy such authority.
| Vocabulary: Slyuz - Sofia Paleolog. Source: t. XXXa (1900): Slyuz - Sofia Paleolog, p. 648-649 ( · index) Other sources: EEBE : MESBE |
Church councils(synods, σύνοδοι, concilia) - in a broad sense, this is the name given to meetings of church representatives to discuss and resolve issues and matters of doctrine, religious and moral life, structure, management and discipline of religious Christian societies. In the law of each Christian confessional church, special special features are introduced into the concept of S., indicating its personal composition and the scope of the department. Thus, in the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian churches, councils in the precise sense are called meetings of pastors and teachers of the church, compiled, in accordance with church rules and state laws, to affirm the truths of faith, to establish the welfare of church affairs, to establish, maintain and develop order and discipline in the church. ; in the Roman Catholic - assemblies of bishops, prelates and doctors presided over by the metropolitan, primate and patriarch or pope, or those authorized by him - to regulate matters of faith, religious life and discipline; in Protestant churches - a meeting of pastors and representatives from church communities and the government for meetings on issues of religion and church life. Synods or councils have existed in the church at all times, either in the form of temporary meetings, or - in some independent churches - in the form of permanent institutions. They exist today in various countries and denominational churches. The basis for the existence of councils in the structure of the church lies in the doctrine of the founder of the church (Matt. XVIII, 18, 15-20; John XVII, 17, 21-26), in the example of the apostles who made up the council in Jerusalem (Acts ch. XV), in the nature of the church as a religious society, in the principles of the historical development of the structure of the church, and in the fact that many questions arising among church members from religious beliefs cannot be resolved otherwise than through the mediation of S. The word itself is συν όδός, according to Russian - S., in Latin concilium, hence concile, Concilien, etc., means the path along which together they come to the same goal. In the history of the Christian church, there are two main categories of socialism: ecumenical (see) and local. This distinction and division is currently accepted by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian Gregorian, etc. churches; but each of these churches recognizes a different number of symbols with the meaning of ecumenical, and not all symbols recognized as such in one of them are accepted with the same meaning in other churches. Local(τοπικαί σύνοδοι), or private (S. particulares), S. in the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian-Gregorian and other long-existing Eastern. churches are called meetings of bishops and other hierarchs of any one local, independent (autocephalous) or denominational church or any specific area of it (country, state, locality, province), compiled to resolve issues and cases arising within its boundaries regarding religious doctrine , building, management and discipline. The division of the universal Christian church into local and denominational churches, as well as each local and denominational church into regions, took place in history according to the conditions of time, place and circumstances of the political, popular and religious life of the Christian population and diversified in different countries of the world and at different times; At the same time, the forms of organization and administration of individual churches and ecclesiastical regions and their institutions also diversified. Synods or synods, as church institutions, were maintained in the structure of local and denominational churches, but not in the same form, being subject to various modifications in different countries and churches and at different times in their private names, in organization, in the meaning and scope of their jurisdiction, but while maintaining the principles of collegiality. Therefore, in the universal Christian church, as in every local Orthodox and every denominational church, S. have their own history, the initial beginning of which is the legislation of the universal church of the first nine centuries of Christianity. The events are named according to the cities in which they took place (Antioch, Sardicia, Arelat, Moscow, Basel, etc.), according to the geographical location of the churches whose representatives participated in them (N. Eastern Church, Western Church), according to the names of the churches in which they were part (S. Church of Constantinople, Antioch, Roman, Carthaginian, etc.), by the names of the countries where they gathered (Spanish, Asia Minor), by nationalities (S. Russian, Serbian, Romanian churches) , by religion (S. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian-Gregorian, Lutheran churches), by titles of chairmen or church institutions (metropolitan, patriarchal, regional, monastic, diocesan), by composition of members (bishopric, national church, mixed) , by their number (great, small, large, smaller), by duration (temporary, permanent). In ancient Russia there were temporary villages, named after the cities where they gathered (Kyiv, Moscow); in the 17th century under the patriarchs, S. differed. great and “happening” bishops in Moscow; under Peter, instead of temporary S., a “sanctified S.” was established under the locum tenens. permanent, and in 1721 - St. right synod. The convening of temporary councils ceased in 1721; only in modern times were bishops of some dioceses convened in Kazan and Kyiv for meetings, but without the authority of S.; Only the administrative institution of the Lavra retained the name “spiritual S..” In the Armenian-Gregorian Church, within Russia, the highest church-governmental institution is called the Synod of Etchmiadzin. According to the statutes of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Russia, there are synods in the probst and consistorial districts and a General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran. In the law of the Roman Catholic Church, in addition to ecumenical laws, there are national, provincial, and diocesan laws (diocesanae synodi). The organization of church churches was established by the customs and rules of the universal church (1 ecum. 5, etc.) and local ones, and in some countries, in modern times, by secular legislation, with the participation of church authorities. According to the current law in all countries, the structure of church churches, the scope of power and the range of their jurisdiction are determined by the rules, laws and statutes of each local church, issued and applied with the approval, sanction or, at least, with the knowledge of state authorities; but the fundamental rules of the universal church regarding the S. of local churches even now retain the authoritative significance of the source of law in almost all Christian countries, especially with a population of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Armenian Gregorian confessions. Councils of local, denominational and territorial churches are assigned, within the church or state limits determined by local legislation, the power to organize, develop and maintain order in the local church, in all aspects of its structure and management, in particular - to issue rules, draw up draft rules for submission to the government, discuss, to eliminate and correct teachings that disagree with general church teaching, to resolve disputes and disputes regarding legal relations and church matters in the highest authority, to judge the highest hierarchs, to have the highest supervision in the church and in Orthodox countries - to elect and appoint bishops and other highest hierarchs. The distribution of types of power between conciliar institutions in different churches is currently very diverse. In the Russian and Greek Orthodox churches, permanent synods are granted all types of supreme ecclesiastical authority in the country; in the churches of Constantinople, Serbian and Romanian in the Austrian possessions, legislative ecclesiastical power belongs to the people's church. , judicial - to bishops, administrative - to special institutions. In the Roman Catholic Church, the judicial power in the highest instances received an organization separate from the conciliar power back in the Middle Ages. In the German Protestant territorial churches, synods in modern times have been given a certain organization, with the right to draw up and discuss projects regarding church structure and government, for submission to the government; administrative and judicial power was left to church councils and consistories. The decrees of local and denominational churches had, as they still do, binding significance only in the area from which its members were represented. The rules of some local laws of the ancient church, which expressed the general church legal consciousness, were, however, adopted by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Armenian churches as part of the general church legislation and therefore are still recognized as a source of law. In all Orthodox local and Armenian churches, the rules of local S.: Ancyra (314-315), Neo-Caesarean (315), Gangra (c. 340), Antioch (341), Laodicean (364), Sardicean (347) enjoy such authority ), Carthaginian (318), Constantinople 394, 864 and 879. In the Roman Catholic Church, the first seven of the listed S. and also S. Elvira (in Spain, ca. 300) enjoy the same authority. The historical significance of local rules in the development of church law of each denominational and local church is assessed by the degree of their influence on church life. In almost every country and denominational church there are collections of conciliar rules and literary studies about S.
Wed. Turchaninov, “Historical Study of the Northern Russian Church” (M., 1829); Grigorovich, “On the S. Russian Church” (M., 1866); Zhishman, “On the S. Eastern Churches” (1867); Hefele, "Conciliengeschichte".
CHURCH CATHEDRALS, meetings of bishops with dogmatic and canonical powers, convened to discuss the most important issues of church life and doctrine and make appropriate decisions. In the Roman Catholic Church, “ecumenical” refers to councils to which all bishops are invited and which thereby represent the entire Christian world; councils, to which only part of the highest clergy are invited, are considered “local” or “private”. The latter can be “provincial” or “plenary” - depending on whether they are convened within a particular diocese (or diocese) or within the entire country. Church councils (including local ones) enjoy legal authority in religious matters, which exceeds the legislative powers of individual bishops. This is the difference between councils and bishops' conferences, which are not legislative assemblies.
In accordance with Roman Catholic canon law, a general church council is convened only by the Pope, and the decisions of this council come into force only if they are confirmed and approved by the Holy See. In principle, only "resident" bishops (i.e. those who actually govern the diocese) were invited to participate in the council, but later this privilege was extended to cardinals and titular bishops, abbots, heads of monastic orders or special male monastic congregations who (like the Jesuits) are not subject to bishops or cardinals. All of the above have the right to a decisive vote, the rest of the council participants (in particular, theologians) have only an advisory vote.
Councils are named after the place where they were held. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes 21 ecumenical councils (the Council of Pisa in 1409, convened as an ecumenical council, was subsequently disavowed). Eastern (Orthodox) churches recognize as ecumenical only the first 7 councils that took place before the division of churches, and Protestants recognize the authority of only the first four of them. The 21st (Catholic reckoning) Ecumenical Council - Vatican II - was convened by Pope John XXIII in 1962 and continued under his successor Paul VI until 1965.
Listed below are the ecumenical councils recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, with a summary of their decisions.
(1) I Nicene(325). He condemned Arianism and made a determination regarding the “consubstantiality” of the Son with the Father, which later became part of Nicene Creed .
(2) I of Constantinople(381). He condemned the Macedonians who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Confirmed and supplemented the definition of faith adopted at the First Council of Nicaea.
(3) Ephesian(431). He condemned Nestorianism, which denied hypostatic unity (the unity of the divine and human natures) in the incarnate Word - Christ. Recognized the legitimacy of the name “Theotokos” in relation to the Virgin Mary.
(4) Chalcedonian(451). Condemned Monophysitism, or Eutychianism, ruling that Christ had two natures and was true God and true man.
(5) II of Constantinople(553). He condemned several bishops and theologians for deviating into Nestorianism, primarily Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus and Willow of Edessa. see also NESTORY.
(6) III of Constantinople(680–681). Condemned the Monothelites and ruled that Christ had two wills - divine and human ( see also MONOTHELITICITY).
(7) II Nicene(787). He condemned the iconoclasts and ruled that the veneration of icons and sacred images is not idolatry.
(8) IV of Constantinople(869–870). Condemned Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople.
(9) I Lateran(1123). The first general church council of the Western Church. He approved the Concordat of Worms and adopted the law on church investitures.
(10) II Lateran(1139). He took measures to overcome the schism of Antipope Anacletus II and issued regulations against usury, simony and other vices.
(12) IV Lateran(1215). He adopted a number of decrees aimed at reforming the church, established mandatory annual confession and communion on Easter, and established the dogma of the sacrament of the Eucharist.
(13) I Lyon(1245). Condemned Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II for persecuting the church.
(14) II Lyons(1274). He achieved the temporary reunification of the Eastern (Orthodox) churches with Rome and decreed that the election of a new pope should begin ten days after the death of his predecessor.
(15) Viennese(1311–1312). He abolished the Templar Order, called for a crusade to liberate the Holy Land, accepted the doctrine of the relationship between soul and body in man and condemned the so-called. spiritualists - the sects of the Fraticelli, Dulcinists, Begards and Beguines.
(16) Constance(1414–1418). Adopted a number of decrees concerning the reform of the papacy and the church, condemned Wycliffe, sentenced John Hus to be burned, and put an end to the great Western schism by deposing and imprisoning antipope John XXIII (Balthasar Cossa).
(17) Florentine(1438–1443). He affirmed the primacy of the pope in opposition to supporters of the conciliar reform, who insisted that the general church council should have greater power than the pope, and made an attempt to reunite with the Eastern (Orthodox) churches.
(18) V Lateran(1512–1517). He delimited the powers of the pope and the general church council, condemned the philosophers who taught that the soul is mortal and one for all humanity, and called for a crusade against the Turks.
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