Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte). Biography. Napoleon Bonaparte - a great commander

Life Napoleon Bonaparte was full of brilliant victories that will forever go down in the history of France. There were fewer bitter failures, but they also became legendary.

However, the last years of the life of the French emperor turned out to be much less bright. Napoleon spent them on a tiny piece of land in the Atlantic as a prisoner, limited in communication with the outside world. Napoleon's last secret was the question of the reasons for his death, which occurred at a far from advanced age - the emperor was only 51 years old.

On June 18, 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. He was well aware that this military failure not only put an end to the attempt to restore the empire, which went down in history under the name “Hundred Days,” but also his political career as a whole.

Napoleon abdicated the throne for the second time, and on July 15, 1815, surrendered to the British on board the battleship Bellerophon.

This time, there could be no talk about any island of Elba - the British hoped to send Napoleon as far as possible from Europe, once and for all isolating him from his faithful like-minded people.

Napoleon Bonaparte after his abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau. Delaroche (1845) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean was named as the emperor's place of residence. Located 1,800 km west of Africa, the island was a strategic point for ships on their way to the Indian Ocean before the construction of the Suez Canal. Its area is 122 square kilometers.

Having learned where the British would send him, Napoleon exclaimed: “This is worse than Tamerlane’s iron cage! I would prefer to be handed over to the Bourbons... I have surrendered myself to the protection of your laws. The government is trampling on the sacred customs of hospitality... This is tantamount to signing a death warrant.”

High security prisoner

Napoleon's retinue, which was allowed to stay with the emperor, amounted to 27 people. On August 9, 1815, on board the ship Northumberland, led by the British Admiral George Elphinstone Keith Napoleon leaves Europe forever. Nine escort ships carrying the 3,000 soldiers that would guard Napoleon at Saint Helena accompanied his ship. On October 17, 1815, Napoleon arrived in Jamestown, the only port of St. Helena.

For his stay, he was given the former summer residence of the English governor - Longwood House, located on a mountain plateau 8 kilometers from Jamestown. The house and the area adjacent to it were surrounded by a six-kilometer-long stone wall. Sentinels were placed around the wall so that they could see each other. Sentinels were stationed on the tops of the surrounding hills, reporting all of Napoleon's actions with signal flags.

Exiled to St. Helena, Napoleon lived there on the Longwood estate. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org / Isaac Newton

The life of the former emperor was under the strictest control: he was obliged to appear before the commissioners twice a day so that they could make sure that Napoleon was alive and on the island. His correspondence was carefully checked, and any requests, even the most insignificant, were agreed upon with the governor of the island.

During the first years of his life on the island, Napoleon, in spite of everything, was cheerful and energetic, hoping that the balance of power in Europe would change in his favor.

Napoleon believed he was dying from an illness inherited from his father

But expectations were not met, and the former emperor himself had serious health problems.

He gradually began to gain weight, weakness, heaviness in the stomach, and shortness of breath appeared. Soon headaches began, which after a short time did not go away and accompanied Napoleon until his death.

By the end of 1819, the emperor’s condition was already very serious - his complexion became gray, his eyes dimmed, and his interest in life disappeared. He was often tormented by diarrhea, abdominal pain, causeless thirst, and his legs were swollen. After eating, he experienced bouts of vomiting, and sometimes he even lost consciousness.

Napoleon's attending physician François Carlo Antommarchi believed that his patient was suffering from hepatitis. The emperor himself believed that we were talking about cancer - he died from this disease Napoleon's father Carlo Buonaparte, who was not even 40 years old.

In March 1821, Napoleon practically stopped getting out of bed. By his order, a bust of his son was placed in front of him, which he looked at for hours. On April 13, 1821, the deposed emperor, believing that his days were numbered, began writing his will, which, given his condition, took several days.

On May 1, Napoleon felt some improvement and even tried to get out of bed, but he again felt ill.

On the night of May 4-5, Bonaparte was in a semi-conscious state. Those close to him gathered at his bedside - all the signs said that there were only a few hours left before the end.

Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821 at 17:49, at the age of 51. His original burial site was the "Geranium Valley" on St. Helena.

Napoleon on his deathbed. Vernet (1826) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Arsenic in hair: poisoning or side effect of treatment?

At first, doctors who were trying to find out the causes of the emperor’s death argued whether stomach cancer was to blame, as Napoleon himself believed during his lifetime and as English doctors were inclined to believe, or whether it was hepatitis, as François Antommarqui insisted.

The version of poisoning was widespread among Bonaparte's supporters, but for a long time it did not have any factual basis.

In 1955 the Swedish toxicologist Stan Forshwood accidentally read the memoirs Louis Marchand, bodyguard and servant of the Emperor of France. A toxicologist found 22 symptoms of Napoleon's arsenic poisoning in his memoirs.

In 1960, English scientists analyzed the chemical composition of Napoleon's hair using a neutron activation method from a strand cut from the emperor's head the day after his death. The concentration of arsenic in them was significantly higher than normal.

Another series of experiments conducted with Napoleon's hair allowed scientists to conclude that during the 4 months of the last year before his death, Napoleon received high doses of arsenic, and the time interval of maximum arsenic accumulation coincided with one of the periods of sharp deterioration in Napoleon's health.

Critics of the poisoning theory object that the amount of hair that was used in the analyzes is not enough for final conclusions. In addition, in the first half of the 19th century, arsenic was part of many medical preparations, and its presence in Napoleon’s body does not indicate intentional poisoning.

Napoleon on the island of St. Helena. Sandmann (19th century) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Femininity as a deadly disease

According to another widespread version, which arose at the end of the 20th century, Napoleon fell victim not to a conspiracy, but to improper treatment. The potent drugs that were prescribed to the emperor caused a deficiency of potassium in the patient’s body, and this, in turn, led to heart disease.

But the most original theory was put forward by the American endocrinologist Robert Greenblatt, who stated that the emperor died not from cancer or poisoning, but from a hormonal disease that gradually turned him into a woman. Various symptoms that appeared in Napoleon 12 years before his death indicate that he was susceptible to the so-called “Zollinger-Ellison disease,” which caused a disorder of the hormonal system.

To prove his rightness, the endocrinologist cites a number of situations that arose with Napoleon long before his last exile - swollen legs before the Battle of Borodino, severe stomach pain in Dresden, fatigue and neuralgia in Leipzig, and so on.

None of the theories widespread today about the causes of Napoleon's death has irrefutable evidence in its favor. Perhaps this dispute will never be settled.

In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from Saint Helena to France and buried in the Invalides in Paris. Thus, the will of the emperor, as set out in his will, was fulfilled - Napoleon Bonaparte wanted to find his final refuge in France.

Napoleon I Bonaparte, an outstanding French statesman, a brilliant commander, and emperor, was a native of Corsica. There he was born in 1769, on August 15, in the city of Ajaccio. Their noble family lived poorly and raised eight children. When Napoleon was 10 years old, he was sent to the French College of Autun, but already that same year he ended up at the Brienne Military School. In 1784 he became a student at the Paris Military Academy. Having received the rank of lieutenant upon graduation, in 1785 he began to serve in the artillery troops.

The French Revolution was greeted by Napoleon Bonaparte with great enthusiasm, and in 1792 he became a member of the Jacobin Club. For the capture of Toulon, occupied by the British, Bonaparte, who was appointed chief of artillery and carried out a brilliant operation, was awarded the rank of brigadier general in 1793. This event became a turning point in his biography, turning into the starting point of a brilliant military career. In 1795, Napoleon distinguished himself during the dispersal of the Parisian royalist rebellion, after which he was appointed commander of the Italian army. Undertaken under his leadership in 1796-1997. The Italian campaign demonstrated military leadership talents in all its glory and glorified it throughout the continent.

Napoleon considered his first victories sufficient grounds to declare himself as an independent person. Therefore, the Directory willingly sent him on a military expedition to distant lands - Syria and Egypt (1798-1999). It ended in defeat, but it was not regarded as Napoleon’s personal failure, because... he left the army without permission to fight Suvorov’s army in Italy.

When Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris in October 1799, the Directory regime was experiencing the peak of its crisis. It was not difficult for the extremely popular general, who had a loyal army, to carry out a coup d'état and proclaim the consulate regime. In 1802, Napoleon achieved that he was appointed consul for life, and in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor.

The internal policy pursued by him was aimed at the comprehensive strengthening of personal power, which he called the guarantor of the preservation of revolutionary gains. He undertook a number of important reforms in the legal and administrative spheres. Many Napoleonic innovations formed the basis for the functioning of modern states and are still in effect today.

When Napoleon came to power, his country was at war with England and Austria. Heading out on a new Italian campaign, his army victoriously eliminated the threat to the borders of France. Moreover, as a result of military actions, almost all countries of Western Europe were subordinated to it. In those territories that were not directly part of France, Napoleon created kingdoms under his control, where the rulers were members of the imperial family. Austria, Prussia and Russia were forced to enter into an alliance with it.

During the first years of his time in power, Napoleon was perceived by the population as the savior of the homeland, a man born of the revolution; his entourage largely consisted of representatives of the lower social strata. Victories evoked a sense of pride in the country and national uplift. However, the war, which lasted about 20 years, left the population fairly tired, and in 1810 the economic crisis began again.

The bourgeoisie was dissatisfied with the need to spend money on wars, especially since external threats were a thing of the past. It did not escape her attention that an important factor in foreign policy was Napoleon’s desire to expand the scope of his power and protect the interests of the dynasty. The Emperor even divorced Josephine, his first wife (there were no children in their marriage), and in 1810 linked his fate with Marie-Louise, the daughter of the Austrian Emperor, which displeased many fellow citizens, although an heir was born from this union.

The collapse of the empire began in 1812 after Russian troops defeated Napoleon's army. Then the anti-French coalition, which, in addition to Russia, included Prussia, Sweden, and Austria, defeated the imperial army in 1814 and, entering Paris, forced Napoleon I to abdicate the throne. While retaining the title of emperor, he found himself as an exile on a small island. Elbe in the Mediterranean Sea.

Meanwhile, French society and the army experienced discontent and fears due to the fact that the Bourbons and the emigrated nobility had returned to the country, hoping for the return of former privileges and property. Having escaped from the Elbe, on March 1, 1815, Bonaparte moved to Paris, where he was met with enthusiastic cries of the townspeople and resumed hostilities. This period of his biography remained in history under the name “One Hundred Days.” The Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815 led to the final and irrevocable defeat of Napoleon's troops.

The deposed emperor was sent to the Atlantic Ocean to the island of St. Helena, where he was a prisoner of the British. The last 6 years of his life passed there, filled with humiliation and suffering from cancer. It was from this disease that it was believed that the 51-year-old Napoleon died on May 5, 1821. However, later French researchers came to the conclusion that the true cause of his death was arsenic poisoning.

Napoleon I Bonaparte went down in history as an outstanding, controversial personality, possessing brilliant military leadership, diplomatic and intellectual abilities, amazing performance and a phenomenal memory. The results of the revolution, consolidated by this major statesman, were beyond the power to destroy the restored Bourbon monarchy. An entire era was named after him; his fate was a real shock for his contemporaries, including people of art; military operations carried out under his leadership became the pages of military textbooks. Civil norms of democracy in Western countries are still largely based on Napoleonic law.

Commander, First Consul of the French Republic (1799 – 1804), Emperor of France (1804 – 1814, March-June 1815)

• Napoleone Buonaparte (French version - Napoleon Bonaparte) was born on August 15, 1769 in the town of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. He was the second son in a large family with seven children. Shortly before the birth of the future emperor, Corsica came into the possession of France.
• Napoleon's father, the nobleman Carlo Maria Buonaparte, served as a lawyer. He was elected as a deputy from the Corsican nobility, in this capacity he traveled to Versailles, and was in good standing with the French governor in Corsica.
• Napoleon's mother, Letizia Buonaparte, née Ramolino. She was a devout Catholic and had a great influence on her son.
• 1779 - Napoleon was sent to Autun College in France.
• 1780 – 1784 – studied at the Brienne Military School on a government scholarship.
• 1784 - 1785 - studied at the Paris Military School, after which (in October 1785) Napoleon Bonaparte received the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery and immediately entered service in the royal army.
• Despite the fact that, thanks to the efforts of his father, Napoleon studies for free in Paris, he remains a patriot of Corsica for a long time and is hostile to the French.
• 1792 - Napoleon joins the Jacobin Club. During this period, he tries to engage in politics in his homeland, in Ajaccio, but due to the conflict with the Corsican separatists, the attempts have to be abandoned.
• 1793 - The Buonaparte family is forced to flee Corsica, engulfed in an anti-French uprising.
• Same year, autumn – first promotion; Lieutenant Bonaparte was promoted to brigadier general for distinguishing himself in the Anglo-French battle at the fortress of Toulon. Napoleon then proposed his own plan to capture the besieged city.
• 1795 - Napoleon was arrested for the similarity of his views with the views of the disgraced O. Robespierre, but was quickly released.
• October 5, 1795 (13 Vendemier) - the Parisian garrison under the command of Napoleon participates in the suppression of the monarchist rebellion.
• The same year - Napoleon meets a native of Martinique, the widow Josephine Marie-Rose de Beauharnais. She will become the love of his life, despite the age difference - Josephine is 6 years older.
• March 9, 1796 - Napoleon and Josephine officially marry. It is known that when drawing up the marriage contract, Bonaparte attributed himself a year and a half, and Josephine reduced her age by 4 years.
• 1796 - A special army is created for military operations in Italy, and Napoleon insists on becoming its commander-in-chief. He also takes part in the development and preparation of the Italian campaign.
• 1796 - 1797 - Napoleon Bonaparte successfully leads the Italian military campaign, showing not only the talent of a commander, but also political talent.
• February 1797 - Napoleon signs a peace treaty that is very beneficial for France with Pope Pius VI.
• During the Italian campaign, Napoleon manages to get rich - the war is accompanied by robberies (indemnities), and the loot goes not only to the French treasury.
• October 1797 - Napoleon imposes the Treaty of Campoformia on Austria.
• 1798 – 1799 – Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt, after the conquest of which the commander plans to go to India. But the plan to conquer the eastern lands was initially adventurous and unpromising, and it ends with Bonaparte fleeing Egypt.
• November 9 - 10, 1799 - Napoleon carries out a coup d'etat in France, which went down in history as the “Coup of the 18th Brumaire”. At the same time, he relies on the military elite, the aristocracy, as well as on his brothers, who occupy prominent positions in the representative bodies of the Republic. The Directory regime has been overthrown. As a result of the coup, Bonaparte concentrated in his hands all the power over France and was elected First Consul of the French Republic for a ten-year term (1799 - 1804, from 1802 Consul for Life).
• 1800 - a new Italian campaign, just as successful for Bonaparte as the previous one. The French manage to recapture Northern Italy.
• 1800 - 1801 - Napoleon tries to get closer to the Russian Empire, but at the beginning of 1801, Emperor Paul I is killed in St. Petersburg, and Russia temporarily switches to its internal problems.
• 1801 - a concordat concluded with the Pope restores the rights of the Catholic Church in France lost during the Directory and provides Napoleon with the support of the papacy.
• 1801 - 1802 - during this period Bonaparte concludes peace treaties with the main opponents of France (Russia, Austria, Great Britain).
• 1803 - the beginning of another war with Great Britain.
• 1804 - Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of France (now called Napoleon I). Josephine becomes empress.
• 1805 - Napoleon I is solemnly crowned in Paris.
• December 2, 1805 – Battle of Austerlitz. A year earlier, an anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, Austria, Great Britain and Sweden. Napoleon's army stood in Boulogne, preparing to attack Great Britain, but it had to turn towards the coalition troops. At Austerlitz, the latter suffered a crushing defeat.
• 1806 - after the victory at Austerlitz, the Union of the Rhine was created under Napoleon’s protectorate, uniting the West and South German states.
• The same year - Bonaparte visits Poland. This state at that time was going through hard times, divided between three strong opponents - Russia, Austria and Prussia. The Poles saw Napoleon as a liberator and received him accordingly. Here the emperor meets 18-year-old Maria (Marysya) Valevskaya. Their relationship lasts until Bonaparte's death.
• 1806 – 1807 – the troops of the new anti-French coalition (Russia, Prussia, Sweden) were defeated. The Russian Empire is leaving the war. Emperor Alexander I concludes the Peace of Tilsit with Napoleon, which made Bonaparte the ruler of Germany.
• 1808 - in Weimar, taking part in the Erfurt Congress, Napoleon meets with Johann Wolfgang Goethe and presents him with the Order of the Legion of Honor.
• 1809 – short-term war with Austria. The Treaty of Schönbrunn was concluded.
• May 4, 1810 - Maria Valevskaya gives birth to Napoleon's son Alexander. As an adult, he would occupy a prominent position at the court of Emperor Napoleon III.
• 1810 - for dynastic reasons, Napoleon divorces Josephine and marries the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I, Maria Louise.
• 1811 - the legal heir of Emperor Napoleon I is born, immediately after his birth he is proclaimed the “King of Rome.” The child was named François Charles Joseph Bonaparte, and the emperor's supporters called him Napoleon II.
• Campaign to the Russian Empire - in June 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte marches to Russia. For this purpose, an army of about 600 thousand people was assembled throughout Europe. The Russians not only completely defeat this army - it is practically destroyed. Napoleon returns to Paris in December and mobilizes again. The new troops are not inferior in number to the old ones, but they are inferior in quality. However, in May 1813 they managed to defeat the Russian-Prussian army in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen.
• Summer 1813 - Napoleon agrees to a brief truce with the allies. During this period, negotiations on concluding a final peace are scheduled to take place in Prague. But Bonaparte, not wanting to give in, disrupts the peace meeting. In August, hostilities resumed.
• October 1813 - the battle of Leipzig, called the “battle of the nations.” Napoleon is defeated. Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland were liberated from French rule.
• 1813 - 1814 - the allies periodically make peace proposals to Bonaparte, gradually tightening their demands. Napoleon rejects them. France, meanwhile, returns to its “natural” borders. Finally, the allies decide to overthrow Emperor Bonaparte. Napoleon fights to the last, sometimes inflicting sensitive blows on the enemy troops, but he is no longer able to influence the outcome of the war. However, peace proposals continue to be rejected by them.
• March 1814 - Allied troops enter Paris. The French Senate (the only representative body left by Bonaparte) deposes the emperor and restores the royal power of the Bourbons. King Louis XVIII ascends the throne.
• April 6, 1814 - Napoleon Bonaparte officially abdicates the throne. He retained the title of emperor. Moreover, the Mediterranean island of Elba was given to Bonaparte. Having retired there, Napoleon closely monitors the political situation in France and Europe. In this exile, the emperor is visited by Maria Valevskaya and four-year-old Alexander.
• In France, meanwhile, dissatisfaction with the return of the old Bourbon regime is growing. Disagreements among allies are also becoming more frequent and intensifying. Napoleon Bonoparte decides to return. He plans to regain power and restore his empire.
• March 1, 1815 - Bonaparte with a small detachment lands off the coast of France.
• March 20 – June 22, 1815 – the period of Napoleon’s power, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days”. On March 20, the emperor and his army triumphantly entered Paris, meeting no resistance along the way. However, the allies immediately, forgetting their differences, formed another anti-French coalition. Having gathered an army as soon as possible, Napoleon tries to defeat the enemy troops one by one, but he fails to do this. England, Prussia and the Netherlands join forces, and a huge army marches against France. On June 18, the famous Battle of Waterloo (Belgian territory) takes place. This is the last battle in the series of Napoleonic wars, and it is lost by France. June 22 Bonaparte abdicates the throne for the second time.
• Having lost at Waterloo, Napoleon surrenders to the British. They send him into exile on St. Helena Island (South Atlantic Ocean).
• 1815 – 1821 – exile. On the island of St. Helena, Bonaparte is composing his memoirs.
• May 5, 1821 - Napoleon Bonaparte dies on the island of St. Helena, having the status of a prisoner of Great Britain. The cause of his death has not yet been precisely established. Some historians claim that the former emperor died of cancer, others argue that he was poisoned.
• 1830 – “Memoirs of Napoleon I” was published in 9 volumes.
• 1840 - Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris and buried in the Invalides.

Main actions Napoleon I in the first years of his reign (“brilliant consulate”) began: establishing order in the country (starting with the elimination of highway robbery, calming the Vendee, ending corruption), establishing administrative management, writing a new constitution, streamlining finances (and, first of all, budget), the establishment of the French Bank, the achievement of a social compromise (the return of emigrants, the creation of the Order of the Legion of Honor, action on the principle of admission to power structures based on talent, and not on party affiliation); concluding peace treaties with all countries participating in anti-French coalitions (which these states soon violated); creation of the famous Civil Code; signing a concordat with the Pope, etc.

E.N.Ponasenkov Moscow State University named after. M.V. Lomonosova

Napoleon is a legendary figure. He took a strong place in history, giving his name to an entire era. Napoleon's battles have become part of military textbooks, and "Napoleonic Law" underlies the civil norms of Western democracies. Napoleon I Bonaparte Born on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica, which had long been under the control of the Genoese Republic, he was the second of thirteen children in the family of a minor aristocrat. Through collaboration with the French, his father managed to secure royal scholarships for his two eldest sons, Joseph and Napoleon. While Joseph was preparing to become a priest, Napoleon was destined for a military career. Napoleon began serving in the military in 1785 with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery, having been promoted during the French Revolution. Possessing a phenomenal memory, incredible capacity for work, a sharp mind, a military and government genius, the gift of a diplomat, and charm, he easily won over people. In November 1799, he carried out a coup d'état, as a result of which he became the first consul, who over time concentrated virtually all power in his hands. In 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. He carried out a number of reforms (in 1800 he founded the French Bank, in 1804 the civil code was adopted). His offensive, victorious wars significantly expanded the territory of the empire. Thanks to Napoleon's conquests, many states of Western and Central Europe became dependent on France. The collapse of the empire of Napoleon I began with the defeat of Napoleonic troops in the war of 1812 against Russia. After the entry of the anti-French coalition troops into Paris in 1814, Napoleon I abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba. In March 1815, he again took the French throne, but after the defeat at Waterloo, in June of the same year he abdicated a second time. He spent the last years of his life as a prisoner of the British on the island of St. Helena. His health steadily deteriorated, and on May 5, 1821, Napoleon died. There is a version that he was poisoned. Despite the fact that Napoleon's empire turned out to be fragile, the tragic fate of the emperor provided abundant food for romanticism, which blossomed in European culture in subsequent decades.

Children: from 2nd marriage
son: Napoleon II
illegitimate
sons: Charles Leon Denuel, Alexander Valevsky
daughter: Josephine Napoleon de Montolon

Childhood

Letizia Ramolino

Beginning of a military career

After the Thermidorian coup, Bonaparte was first arrested due to his connections with Augustin Robespierre (August 10, for two weeks). After his release due to a conflict with the command, he retired, and a year later, in August, he received a position in the topographic department of the Committee of Public Safety. At a critical moment for the Thermidorians, he was appointed by Barras as his assistant and distinguished himself during the dispersal of the royalist rebellion in Paris (13 Vendémières), was promoted to the rank of division general and appointed commander of the rear forces. Less than a year later, on March 9, Bonaparte married the widow of the general, Count of Beauharnais, executed during the Jacobin terror, Josephine, the former mistress of one of the then rulers of France, P. Barras. Some consider Barras's wedding gift to the young general to be the position of commander of the Italian Army (the appointment took place on February 23), but Bonaparte was proposed for this position by Carnot.

Thus, “a new military and political star rose” on the European political horizon, and a new era began in the history of the continent, the name of which for many 20 years will be “Napoleonic Wars”.

Rise to power

Allegorical image of Napoleon

The crisis of power in Paris reached its climax by 1799, when Bonaparte was with his army in Egypt. The corrupt Directory was unable to ensure the gains of the revolution. In Italy, Russian-Austrian troops, commanded by Alexander Suvorov, liquidated all of Napoleon's acquisitions, and there was even a threat of invasion of France. Under these conditions, a popular general who returned from Egypt, relying on an army loyal to him, dispersed the representative bodies and the Directory and proclaimed a consulate regime (November 9).

According to the new constitution, legislative power was divided between the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, which made it helpless and clumsy. The executive power, on the contrary, was gathered into one fist by the first consul, that is, Bonaparte. The second and third consuls had only advisory votes. The constitution was approved by the people in a plebiscite (about 3 million votes against 1.5 thousand) (1800). Later, Napoleon passed a decree through the Senate on the lifetime of his powers (1802), and then proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (1804).

When Napoleon came to power, France was at war with Austria and England. Bonaparte's new Italian campaign resembled the first. Having crossed the Alps, the French army unexpectedly appeared in Northern Italy, enthusiastically greeted by the local population. The victory in the Battle of Marengo () was decisive. The threat to the French borders was eliminated.

Napoleon's domestic policy

Having become a full-fledged dictator, Napoleon radically changed the country's government structure. Napoleon's domestic policy consisted of strengthening his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, that is, confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. The Civil Code (), which went down in history as the Napoleonic Code, was supposed to ensure all these conquests. Napoleon carried out an administrative reform, establishing the institution of department prefects and district sub-prefects accountable to the government (). Mayors were appointed to cities and villages.

A state French bank was established to store gold reserves and issue paper money (). Until 1936, no major changes were made to the management system of the French Bank, created by Napoleon: the manager and his deputies were appointed by the government, and decisions were made jointly with 15 board members from the shareholders - this ensured a balance between public and private interests. On March 28, 1803, paper money was eliminated: the monetary unit became the franc, equal to a five-gram silver coin and divided into 100 centimes. To centralize the tax collection system, the Directorate of Direct Taxation and the Directorate of Consolidated Taxation (indirect taxes) were created. Having accepted a state with a deplorable financial condition, Napoleon introduced austerity in all areas. The normal functioning of the financial system was ensured by the creation of two opposing and at the same time cooperating ministries: finance and treasury. They were led by outstanding financiers of that time, Gaudin and Mollien. The Minister of Finance was responsible for budget revenues, the Minister of the Treasury gave a detailed report on the expenditure of funds, and his activities were audited by the Accounts Chamber of 100 civil servants. She controlled state expenditures, but did not make judgments about their appropriateness.

Napoleon's administrative and legal innovations laid the foundation for the modern state, many of which are still in effect today. It was then that a system of secondary schools was created - lyceums and higher educational institutions - the Normal and Polytechnic schools, which still remain the most prestigious in France. Well aware of the importance of influencing public opinion, Napoleon closed 60 of the 73 Parisian newspapers and placed the rest under government control. A powerful police force and an extensive secret service were created. Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Pope (1801). Rome recognized the new French government, and Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. At the same time, freedom of religion was preserved. The appointment of bishops and the activities of the church were made dependent on the government.

These and other measures forced Napoleon's opponents to declare him a traitor to the Revolution, although he considered himself a faithful successor of its ideas. The truth is that he managed to consolidate some revolutionary gains (the right to property, equality before the law, equality of opportunity), but decisively dissociated himself from the principle of freedom.

"Great Army"

Napoleon's military campaigns and the battles that characterize them

General characteristics of the problem

Napoleon's Marshals

In 1807, on the occasion of the ratification of the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon was awarded the highest award of the Russian Empire - the Order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called.

Having won, Napoleon signed a decree on the continental blockade (). From now on, France and all its allies stopped trade relations with England. Europe was the main market for British goods, as well as colonial ones, imported mainly by England, the largest maritime power. The continental blockade caused damage to the English economy: a little over a year later, England was experiencing a crisis in the wool production and textile industry; the pound sterling fell. However, the blockade also hit the continent. French industry was not able to replace English industry on the European market. The disruption of trade relations with the English colonies also led to the decline of French port cities: La Rochelle, Marseille, etc. The population suffered from a lack of familiar colonial goods: coffee, sugar, tea...

Crisis and fall of the Empire (1812-1815)

Napoleon's policies in the first years of his reign enjoyed the support of the population - not only owners, but also the poor (workers, farm laborers). The fact is that the revival in the economy caused an increase in wages, which was also facilitated by constant recruitment into the army. Napoleon looked like the savior of the fatherland, wars caused national uplift, and victories caused a sense of pride. After all, Napoleon Bonaparte was a man of the revolution, and the marshals around him, brilliant military leaders, sometimes came from the very bottom. But gradually the people began to get tired of the war, which had lasted for about 20 years. Military recruitment began to cause dissatisfaction. In addition, in 1810 the economic crisis broke out again. The bourgeoisie realized that it was not within its power to economically subjugate all of Europe. Wars in the vastness of Europe were losing their meaning for her; the costs of them began to irritate her. The security of France had not been threatened for a long time, and in foreign policy the emperor’s desire to extend his power and ensure the interests of the dynasty played an increasingly important role. In the name of these interests, Napoleon divorced his first wife Josephine, with whom he had no children, and married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor, Marie-Louise (1810). An heir was born (1811), but the Emperor's Austrian marriage was extremely unpopular in France.

Napoleon's allies, who accepted the continental blockade against their interests, did not strive to strictly observe it. Tensions grew between them and France. The contradictions between France and Russia became increasingly obvious. Patriotic movements expanded in Germany, and guerrilla violence continued unabated in Spain. Having broken off relations with Alexander I, Napoleon decided to go to war with Russia. The Russian campaign of 1812 marked the beginning of the end of the Empire. Napoleon's huge, multi-tribal army did not carry within itself the former revolutionary spirit; far from its homeland in the fields of Russia, it quickly melted away and finally ceased to exist. As the Russian army moved west, the anti-Napoleonic coalition grew. Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops opposed the hastily assembled new French army in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813). Napoleon was defeated and, after the Allies entered Paris, abdicated the throne. On the night of April 12–13, 1814, at Fontainebleau, suffering defeat, abandoned by his court (only a few servants, a doctor and General Caulaincourt were with him), Napoleon decided to commit suicide. He took poison, which he always carried with him after the battle of Maloyaroslavets, when he miraculously escaped being captured. But the poison decomposed from long storage, Napoleon survived. By decision of the allied monarchs, he received possession of the small island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. On April 20, 1814, Napoleon left Fontainebleau and went into exile.

A truce was declared. The Bourbons and emigrants returned to France, seeking the return of their property and privileges. This caused discontent and fear in French society and in the army. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Napoleon fled Elba in February 1815 and, greeted by the enthusiastic cries of the crowd, returned to Paris without hindrance. The war resumed, but France was no longer able to bear its burden. The "Hundred Days" ended with Napoleon's final defeat near the Belgian village of Waterloo (June 18). He was forced to leave France, and, relying on the nobility of the British government, voluntarily arrived on the English warship Bellerophon in the port of Plymouth, hoping to receive political asylum from his longtime enemies - the British. But the English cabinet decided differently: Napoleon became a prisoner of the British and, under the leadership of British Admiral George Elphinstone Keith, was sent to the distant island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. There, in the village of Longwood, Napoleon spent the last six years of his life. Having learned about this decision, he said: “This is worse than Tamerlane’s iron cage! I would prefer to be handed over to the Bourbons... I surrendered myself to the protection of your laws. The government is trampling on the sacred customs of hospitality... This is tantamount to signing a death warrant! The British chose St. Helena because of its distance from Europe, fearing that the emperor would escape from exile again. Napoleon had no hope of a reunion with Marie-Louise and his son: even during his exile on Elba, his wife, under the influence of her father, refused to come to him.

Saint Helena

Napoleon was allowed to choose officers to accompany him; they were Henri-Gracien Bertrand, Charles Montolon, Emmanuel de Las Cases and Gaspard Gourgo, who were with him on the English ship. In total, there were 27 people in Napoleon's retinue. On August 7, 1815, the former emperor left Europe aboard the ship Northumberland. Nine escort ships carrying the 3,000 soldiers that would guard Napoleon at Saint Helena accompanied his ship. On October 17, 1815, Napoleon arrived in Jamestown, the island's only port. The habitat of Napoleon and his retinue was the vast Longwood House (the former summer residence of the Governor General), located on a mountain plateau 8 kilometers from Jamestown. The house and the area adjacent to it were surrounded by a six-kilometer-long stone wall. Sentinels were placed around the wall so that they could see each other. Sentinels were stationed on the tops of the surrounding hills, reporting all of Napoleon's actions with signal flags. The British did everything to make Bonaparte's escape from the island impossible. The deposed emperor initially had high hopes for a change in European (and especially British) policy. Napoleon knew that the Crown Princess of the English throne, Charlotte (daughter of George IV), was a passionate admirer of his. The new governor of the island, Goodson Law, further restricts the freedom of the deposed emperor: he narrows the boundaries of his walks, requires Napoleon to show himself to the guard officer at least twice a day, and tries to reduce his contacts with the outside world. Napoleon is doomed to inactivity. His health was deteriorating, Napoleon and his retinue blamed this on the unhealthy climate of the island.

Death of Napoleon

Napoleon's tomb at Les Invalides

Napoleon's health condition steadily deteriorated. From 1819 he became ill more and more often. Napoleon often complained of pain in his right side and his legs were swollen. His attending physician diagnosed him with hepatitis. Napoleon suspected that it was cancer - the disease from which his father died. In March 1821, his condition deteriorated so much that he had no doubt that death was imminent. On April 13, 1821, Napoleon dictated his will. He could no longer move without outside help, the pain became sharp and painful. On May 5, 1821, Napoleon Bonaparte died. He was buried near Longwood in an area called " Geranium Valley" There is a version that Napoleon was poisoned. However, the authors of the book “Chemistry in Forensics” L. Leistner and P. Bujtash write that “the increased content of arsenic in hair still does not give grounds to unconditionally assert the fact of deliberate poisoning, because the same data could have been obtained if Napoleon had systematically used drugs , which contain arsenic.

Literature

• Napoleon Bonaparte. About the art of war. Selected works. ISBN 5-699-03899-X
• Las Cas Maxims and Thoughts of the Prisoner of Saint Helena
• Mukhlaeva I. “Napoleon. A few sacramental questions"
• Stendhal "The Life of Napoleon"
• Horace Vernet "History of Napoleon"
• Rustam Raza “My life next to Napoleon”
• Pimenova E.K. "Napoleon"
• Filatova Y. “Main aspects of Napoleon’s domestic policy”
• Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. M.: Tsentropoligraf, 1999.
• Saunders E. 100 days of Napoleon. M.: AST, 2002.
• Tarle E. V. Napoleon
• David Markham Napoleon Bonaparte for dummies isbn = 978-5-8459-1418-7
• Manfred A. Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. M.: Mysl, 1989
• Volgin I. L., Narinsky M. M.. Dialogue about Dostoevsky, Napoleon and the Napoleonic myth // Metamorphoses of Europe. M., 1993, p. 127-164
• Ben Weider, David Hapgood. Who killed Napoleon? M.: International relations, 1992.
• Ben Vader. Brilliant Bonaparte. M.: International relations, 1992.
• M. Brandys Maria Valevskaya // Historical stories. M.: Progress, 1974.

• Cronin Vincent Napoleon. - M.: “Zakharov”, 2008. - 576 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0728-7
• Gallo Max Napoleon. - M.: “Zakharov”, 2009. - 704+784 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0845-1

Notes

Predecessor: (First Republic) Himself, as First Consul of the French Republic	1st Emperor of France (First Empire) March 20 - April 6 March 1 - June 22	Successor: (Bourbon Restoration) 34th King of France Louis XVIII
Predecessor: (First Republic) Directory of the French Republic	First Consul of the French Republic (First Republic) November 9 - March 20	Successor: