Russian philosophical thought received from Christianity (and through it from ancient philosophy) a powerful impetus for spiritual and intellectual culture, and deep pagan roots did not allow it, in its search for the meaning of existence, to break away from the earth, life reality, therefore Russian philosophy was initially distinguished by high spirituality and realism, aspiration to vital problems. Of course, like Western medieval philosophy, it was of a religious nature. However, scholasticism (“school character, dependence on the texts of the Holy Scriptures and the institutions of the church”) was not so rigid in it, and it was focused primarily on the spiritual and moral content of Christianity - note, this is very important for all Russian philosophy.
Hilarion was the first metropolitan - a Rusich, and he was appointed not by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but by the Grand Duke of Kiev - Yaroslav the Wise. Hilarion's "Word" is a passionate and eloquent sermon. “Law” is the Law of God, and grace is the Commandments of Jesus Christ. The meaning of human history, Hilarion believes, is in the transition from the law, which enforces slavery, to Grace, the Christian faith, which opens the path to freedom. The Russian people also took this path. Prince Vladimir is similar to the Apostle Andrew and Emperor Constantine. He himself came to faith as a friend of truth, a container of meaning and a nest of mercy. Igor, Svyatoslav and Vladimir are rulers in a country that is known all over the world. Rus' has the sacred right to free independent development, it has taken its rightful place “among the peoples - this is the main idea of the Lay, exquisitely framed in religious terms. And openly pagan motifs are organically woven into all this. According to Slavic mythology, the deceased is a “living dead”, a person who is sound asleep (to this day, when saying goodbye to the deceased, we say “sleep well...”). Hilarion addresses the soul of Prince Vladimir: “Rise, O honest ruler, from your grave. Get up, shake off the sleep, because you are not dead, but you are sleeping until the resurrection common to everyone. Stand up. You are not dead!.. Look at the city, shining with greatness, at the growing Christianity. And when you see all this, rejoice and be glad, for the seeds of faith that you have sown have been watered by the rain of God’s help and have multiplied abundantly.” Thus, the first confession of Russian philosophical thought was idea of freedom- it remains cherished for her in all subsequent times.
Vladimir Monomakh in “Teachings to Sons” shares with children his life experiences and thoughts about the meaning of human life. It depends on the person himself whether his life will be filled with meaning or will be lived in vain, and only he will not live in vain who will not be lazy, but will work - this thought is heard throughout the “Teaching”. But what does it mean to work? First of all, these are spiritual affairs, one must perform three good, godly deeds - repentance, tears and alms. God's mercy can be received not only through ascetic monasticism, but also through small everyday deeds, if you do them carefully and conscientiously. Laziness is the mother of everything; those who can do what they can will forget, and what they can’t do, they won’t learn. Monomakh tells how he, capable of any human undertaking, from the age of thirteen spent his life in tireless labor, did everything himself, did not give himself rest. He especially warns his sons against civil strife. The natural world fascinates Monomakh; it was created so that a person would live in harmony with it, get up from sleep with the sun, and be sure to rest during the day. Sleep at noon is appointed by God - animals, birds and people rest. What fascinates Monomakh most of all is the diversity of human faces and human individualities. What he values most in a person is conscience. He recognized himself as a sinner and insignificant; he considered his only merit to be that he was not lazy, that he worked all his life. “My soul is dearer to me than anything in the world,” he wrote. Let us remember that close interest in the spiritual and moral foundations of human existence originally inherent in Russian philosophical thought.
Such was the impressive beginning of Russian philosophy. The followers of Hilarion and Vladimir Monomakh in the 12th century, Kliment Smolyatich (Metropolitan, like Hilarion, also a Russian), Kirill (Bishop of Turov, Russian Chrysostom, as he was called) and others were able to lay and develop the spiritual foundations of Russian culture by the beginning of the 13th century - and this was a great historical luck, because in the 13th century Rus' suffered a misfortune - for two and a half centuries the Tatar-Mongol yoke fell heavily on it, and if the people did not have spiritual support, it is unlikely that they would have survived as a historical people. And here, already in the 14th century, the activity of Sergius of Radonezh, amazing in its spiritual greatness, unfolded, who blessed the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), and the people’s faith in the future liberation and national revival became irresistible.
Russian philosophy in its development went through the following three main stages: 1) XI-XVII centuries, the emergence and initial development of Russian philosophical thought; 2) XVIII century – the formation of secular philosophy in Russia; 3) XIX-XX centuries, the formation and development of Russian philosophical culture.
First stage (10-17th centuries) history of Russian philosophy, with the beginning of which we became acquainted, was the longest - seven centuries. During it, various forms of Russian spirituality appeared and were tested, and the ideology of the Moscow state was developed as the last stronghold of Christianity. [elder Philotheus (1465-1542) Moscow is the third Rome, and there will never be a fourth; “all kingdoms will be drowned by unbelief, and the new Russian kingdom will stand as a stronghold of Orthodoxy”].
The various forms of Russian spirituality were essentially different interpretations of the Russian Orthodox faith. At the end of the 14th century, during the time of Sergius of Radonezh, the first heresy appeared in Rus' - the “Strigolniks”, which gave a common, mostly pagan, interpretation of the faith. A century later, at the end of the 15th century, the church was dealing with the Novgorod-Moscow heresy (“Judaizers”), which engulfed the privileged, educated strata, even in the princely circle. It denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, exalted astrology, etc. In the church itself, two directions were then formed, “acquisitive” and “non-acquisitive.” The money-grubbers (Joseph Volotsky) considered the mission of the church to educate the people by preaching the faith, and in order to devote itself entirely to this, the church must “acquire”, be rich, have serfs, etc. Non-covetous people (Nile of Sorsky), on the contrary, saw in the church a spiritual and moral example for all people, and therefore it should live by its labor in moral purity, not exploit its fellow Christians, etc. In those distant times, the money-grubbers took over, but historically the moral victory remained with the non-money-grubbers (in the tradition of eldership, Optina Pustyn became especially famous). And all this complex spiritual struggle ultimately led to a split in Russian Orthodox Christianity into the Old Believers and the renewed Nikonian Orthodoxy (XVII century), which continues to this day.
Second stage – XVIII century, the formation of secular philosophy in Russia. It is well known that this was the century of Peter I and Catherine II, when Russia turned into a mighty power. The spirit of enlightenment that swept Russia also gave birth to Russian secular, non-religious philosophy. Its heralds and creators were Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) and Grigory Savvich Skovoroda (1722-1794). They presented two ways of developing M.V.’s secular philosophy. Lomonosov came from science, his “corpuscular” (atomistic) philosophy was based on the achievements of European science and the discoveries of Mikhail Vasilyevich himself; and G.S. Skovoroda directed religious ideas to real problems of human existence and knowledge, giving these ideas a secular character. In the texts of the Bible, he saw not ready-made answers that remain to be commented on, but rich food for thought and deep philosophical content, important for understanding man and the world. Thus, the public guarantee of human happiness, in his opinion, lies in the work that is “natural” to every person in work according to his vocation. The image of God in man has a unique individual face and at the same time is one with all the images of other people. Here the essence of spiritual relationships between people was very subtly and accurately established.
Finally, third stage– formation and development of Russian philosophical culture (XIX-XX centuries). The main content of this stage can be expressed in the following three provisions. Firstly, Russian philosophical culture arose as a meaningful understanding of the process of national self-awareness of Russian spirituality that unfolded in the 19th century. Secondly, this culture was created by representatives of both directions of Russian philosophy, materialistic and religious-idealistic, in polemics and dialogue between them. And, thirdly, Russian philosophical culture was expected to be glorious - for the whole world! and a very difficult, even bitter fate. But all's well that ends well...
The Russian idea is the idea of the special fate and destiny of Russia. It is central to all Russian philosophy. It was formed in the 16th century and was the first ideological formation of the national identity of the Russian people. Subsequently, the “Russian idea” was developed in the period of the 19th-20th centuries. (P. Chaadaev, F. Dostoevsky, N. Berdyaev, V. Solovyov, etc.). Its essence is that it is Russia that should lead the movement towards a universal civilization based on Christianity. Conciliarity is a philosophical principle of the Slavophiles (developed by A.S. Khomyakov). He solves the problem of combining freedom and the need to overcome both individualism and collectivism in establishing the principles of freedom and love that exist in the Russian Orthodox Church.
Byzantism- the concept of the late Slavophiles (developed by K.N. Leontyev). Its supporters believe that the ideas of a monarchical state, Orthodoxy, and refusal to care about earthly goods, which formed the basis of the spiritual and political life of Byzantium, are strong among the Russian people. Therefore, Russia is not Europe, but the Orthodox East.
Cosmism- the doctrine according to which development processes on earth and in society are interconnected with cosmic ones. Therefore, humanity is able to unite on reasonable principles and universal human values. Cosmism was developed by such philosophers as N. Fedorov, V. Vernadsky, K. Tsiolkovsky.
Eurocentrism- a doctrine according to which Europe was recognized as the leader of world civilization. East-centrism is the principle of limiting the role of European culture in the development of world and Russian culture. Developed by Eurasianism (N.S. Trubetskoy, P.N. Savitsky, G.V. Vernadsky, L.N. Gumilev).
Russian philosophy developed under the influence of Byzantine Christian philosophy. The reforms of Peter I contributed to the most complete acquaintance of Russian thinkers with Western European philosophy of the 17th and 18th centuries. The beginning of a consistent and unique development
Russian philosophy rightly dates back to the second quarter of the 19th century. After the 1917 revolution, many philosophers found themselves in exile. The philosophy of the Russian diaspora has produced a whole galaxy of great thinkers. Modern Russian philosophers worthily continue the traditions of their predecessors. Russian philosophy is characterized by continuity, especially in the religious direction. In general, Russian philosophy can be divided into two directions, Westernizing and Slavophile.
Westerners were convinced that Russians needed to learn philosophy from the West. Early Westerners include P.Ya. Chaadaeva, N.V. Stankevich, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen. Westerners propagated and defended the idea of "Europeanization" of Russia. They believed that the country must overcome centuries of economic and cultural backwardness and become a full member of European civilization. Westerners criticized the church and gravitated towards materialism. From their midst arose revolutionary democrats (V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky).
An outstanding Russian philosopher and social thinker was P.Ya. Chaadaev. Chaadaev's philosophy is associated with concern for the fate of Russia. He saw Russia's special path in that it is located between the West and the East and has exclusivity. She has a special purpose. Chaadaev's views played a role in shaping the ideas of both Westerners and Slavophiles.
The original Russian philosophical movement was Slavophilism. Slavophiles substantiated the ideas of a special, messianic role of Russia in the world. Russian religious philosophy emerged from this direction. Slavophiles, among whom I.V. stood out for their philosophical potential. Kireevsky, K.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin and especially A.S. Khomyakov, strived
to refute the German type of philosophizing and to develop a special Russian philosophy on the basis of native Russian ideological traditions.
Unlike Westerners, they idealized Russian antiquity and believed that the establishment of a decent world order in Russia lies not through its borrowing of Western political structures, but in a return to the roots, in the organic development of the patriarchal way of Russian life, which was forcibly and artificially interrupted by the reforms of Peter I. Slavophiles argued that Russia is not only not the West, it is the antipode of the West, it has its own special way of being and path of development, it has a different type of civilization.
Classical Slavophilism was not destined to have a long life, due to the European orientation of the tsarist government. However, the ideas of national identity, the great mission of Russia, the special properties of the Russian people and opposition to the West hovered in the air for a long time and excited many minds.
The ideas of the Slavophiles were developed at the end of the 19th century. N.Ya. Danilevsky and K.N. Leontyev. In his work “Russia and Europe” Danilevsky showed the world historical process as the development and change of cultural and historical types or original civilizations. K.N. Leontyev developed the concept of Byzantineism. He believed that Russia needed to be isolated from Europe and then it would give the world a new culture. For Leontyev, the idea of contrasting Russia with Europe reached its apogee.
An original part of the heritage of Russian philosophy is the ideology of Eurasianism, which until relatively recently was little known. Arose in the early twenties among the Russian emigration and united philosophy, history, geography, economics, psychology and other fields of knowledge,
Eurasianism was a new and at the same time quite traditional trend of thought for Russia. The most famous Eurasians were: linguist, philologist and culturologist Prince. N.S. Trubetskoy; geographer, economist and geopolitician P.N. Savitsky; philosopher L.P. Karsavin; religious philosophers and publicists G.V. Florovsky, V.N. Ilyin; historian G.V. Vernadsky; musicologist and art critic P.P. Suvchinsky; lawyer N.N. Alekseev; economist YaD. Sadovsky; critics and literary scholars A.V. Kozhevnikov (Kozhev), D.P. Svyatopolk-Mirsky; orientalist V.P. Nikitin; writer V.N. Ivanov. Eurasianism was an original concept that had its own philosophical roots and its own ideology. The fundamental ideas of Eurasianism as a historical and cultural concept are defined: the idea of Russia as Eurasia - a special ethnographic world with its own unique culture, the idea of the special place of Russia-Eurasia in world history and the special ways of its development; the idea of culture as a symphonic personality; the idea of spreading the Church, Orthodoxy.
In the history of Russian philosophy, B.C. occupies a special place. Soloviev. Solovyov's philosophy is called the philosophy of unity. It was as follows: 1) the essence of the Absolute is positive unity, i.e. a single, whole, unconditional idea; 2) personal aspect, theological - Sophia, divine wisdom, the mystical side of his worldview. It was in the works of Solovyov that the “Russian idea” acquired its full and philosophically meaningful embodiment.
The representative of existentialism in Russian religious philosophy was N.A. Berdyaev, a representative of the philosophy of Russian diaspora. His views are eschatological, directed to the future. Considering a person, Berdyaev singles out in him freedom of will and spirit. The main ideas of this famous philosopher are expressed in
1. the following: 1) the idea of freedom determines the entire ontology; 2) there is no single basis in philosophical views; 3) the idea of creativity and objectification; 4) the eschatological meaning of history; 5) 2 series of bases: A. freedom, spirit (God), personality (I), B. necessity, world, phenomenon. The world of objects is devoid of spirituality. The creative subject includes the world within himself, his inner life is open to freedom. The central concept in Berdyaev’s philosophy is Personality, which connects a person with the world of freedom and creativity.
An interesting phenomenon in Russian philosophy was a direction called cosmism. In Russian cosmism, the problem of the unity of man with the cosmos, the cosmic nature of man arises (N.F. Fedorov, V.S. Solovyov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, A.L. Chizhevsky, V.I. Vernadsky). The concepts of cosmism were based on evolutionary views that were popular in Russia. In Russian cosmism there were trends in science fiction and theology. According to Fedorov, a person is even capable, thanks to knowledge, experience and work, of gaining immortality and resurrecting departed generations. The personality in cosmism, having individuality, is at the same time inseparable from the universal.
The central idea of Russian philosophy was the search and justification of the special place and role of Russia in the common life and fate of mankind. Russian philosophy has its own special features due to the unique historical development of Russia. It is characterized by a social orientation. Russian philosophy, developing the idea of originality, placed its main condition on the religious principle, namely Orthodoxy.
Related information.
The process of emergence and development of philosophical ideas constitutes the subject of a special science - the history of philosophy. This science examines the historical and philosophical process in the broad context of culture, in relation to complex phenomena of social life. Already L. Feuerbach showed that a person, philosophizing, speaks on behalf of the entire human race. But this does not mean that all countries and peoples were equally involved in the origin and development of philosophy.
In Western (Mediterranean) culture took on this great role Greeks- citizens of the ancient city-polises that then inhabited the Aegean Sea basin. The birthplace of ancient Eastern philosophy — India and China. It is interesting that the formation of both Western and Eastern philosophy occurred at almost the same historical time and independently of each other. Both in the West and in the East, philosophy began to take shape at that stage of history and culture when, in connection with the development of social relations, an irreversible process of decomposition of the consciousness that dominated in tribal and early class society began. The displacement of the mythological by philosophical consciousness was at the same time the birth of rationality - faith in reason as the most reliable support of life and a natural means of knowledge.
The ancient Greeks “invented” philosophy, but this invention became possible only because even earlier they “invented” democracy, and even earlier - they realized the intrinsic value of mental activity, the joy of the free search for truth.
History of philosophy- an integral part of cultural history. It is possible to periodize in different ways the path traversed by philosophy over two and a half thousand years (from the times of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans). But in the most general sense, large periods, stages of the historical development of philosophy are based on socio-economic formations, methods of social and spiritual production. Following this view, they talk about ancient philosophy (the philosophy of a slave society), medieval philosophy (the philosophy of the era of feudalism), the philosophy of modern times (the philosophy of the bourgeois formation) and modern philosophy, meaning by it the philosophical thought of the 20th century, ideologically and politically extremely not unambiguous. The national uniqueness of philosophical ideas should not be underestimated. In this context, German, French, and Russian philosophy (which is comparable to national art) is considered as relatively independent spiritual constructs.
First historically a major stage in the development of philosophy - ancient philosophy (VI century BC - VI century AD). Its creators were the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans (the latter in late antiquity). The greatest achievement of these philosophers was the very formulation of the eternal problems that always accompany man: about the beginning of all things, about the existence and non-existence of the world, about the identity of opposites, about freedom and necessity, life and death, freedom and necessity, the place and role of man on earth and in space, about moral duty, about the beautiful and sublime, about wisdom and human dignity, about love, friendship, happiness and many other things that cannot but excite the mind and soul of a person. The ancient thinkers had one “tool” of knowledge - contemplation, observation, subtle speculation.
Ancient philosophy arose as spontaneous dialectical natural philosophy. It is to her that ancient thought owes two remarkable ideas: the idea of a universal, universal connection of all things and phenomena of the world and the idea of endless, world development. Already in ancient philosophy, two alternative epistemological directions emerged: materialism and idealism. The materialist Democritus, ahead of centuries and millennia, put forward the brilliant idea of the atom as the smallest particle of matter. The idealist Plato, relying not only on the power of abstract thought, but also on amazing artistic intuition, brilliantly developed the dialectic of individual things and general concepts, which is of enduring importance in all areas of human creativity to this day.
Often historians of ancient philosophy draw a line between earlier and later ancient philosophers, classifying the former as the “Pre-Socratics” and the latter as the Socratic schools. This underscores the truly key role Socrates(V century BC) as a philosopher who moved the center of philosophical knowledge from the problems of natural philosophy to the field of human science, primarily ethics. The ideas of late antiquity (the Hellenistic era) inherited the humanistic thought of Socrates. At the same time, deeply experiencing the impending death of ancient culture, the philosophers of this period took an undoubted step from Socratic rationalism towards irrationalism and mysticism, which became especially noticeable in the philosophy of Plato’s followers - the Neoplatonists.
Second phase in the development of European philosophy - medieval philosophy (V-XV centuries AD). In spirit and content, this is a religious (Christian) philosophy, which substantiated and strengthened the Christian (Catholic) faith in all countries of Western Europe. For more than a thousand years, the orthodox ideology of Christianity, relying on the power of the church, waged a stubborn struggle against “heresies”, “freethinking”, that is, with the slightest deviations from the dogmas and canons of the Vatican. Although even under these conditions, philosophy defended the rights of reason, but on the condition of recognizing the dominance of faith over reason. Those who did not agree with this faced the fires of the Inquisition.
Philosophers and theologians, who developed the basic tenets of the Christian religion in the first centuries of the new era, received the highest degree of recognition in the eyes of their successors and followers - they began to be revered as the “fathers” of the Church, and their work began to be called "patristic". One of the most prominent "church fathers" was Augustine the Blessed(IV-V centuries AD). God, in his opinion, is the creator of the world, and he is also the creator, the engine of history. The philosopher and theologian saw the meaning and destiny of history in the worldwide transition of people from paganism to Christianity. Each person bears full responsibility for his deeds and actions, since God gave man the ability to freely choose between good and evil.
If Augustine- a prominent representative of the early Middle Ages, the established system of Christian medieval philosophy is most fully and significantly expressed in the works of Thomas Aquinas(XIII century). His philosophy is the pinnacle scholastics.(This is how philosophy, taught in schools and universities, began to be called by this time.) Putting Aristotle above all his predecessors, Thomas made a grandiose attempt to unite, organically connect ancient wisdom with the dogma and doctrine of Christianity. From these positions, reason (science) and faith do not contradict each other, unless it is the “correct” faith, that is, the Christian faith.
In medieval scholasticism we find the germs of real problems. One of them was the problem of dialectics, the connection between the general and the individual. Does the common really exist? Or does only the individual really exist, and the general is only a mental abstraction from individual objects and phenomena? Those who recognized the reality of general concepts formed the direction realists, which considered the general to be only a “name”, and only the individual to really exist, constituted the direction nominalism. Nominalists and realists are the predecessors of the materialists and idealists of the New Age.
The third, transitional stage in the history of Western philosophy is philosophy Renaissance . There are Early Renaissance (XIII-XIV centuries) and Late Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). The very name of the era is very eloquent: we are talking about the revival (after a thousand-year break) of the culture, art, philosophy of the ancient world, the achievements of which are recognized as a model for modernity. The great representatives of this era were comprehensively developed people (Dante, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Montaigne, Cervantes, Shakespeare). Brilliant artists and thinkers put forward in their work not a theological, but a humanistic system of values. Social thinkers of this time - Machiavelli, More, Campanella - created projects for an ideal state that expressed primarily the interests of a new social class - the bourgeoisie.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. capitalism began to establish itself in Western European countries. The great geographical discoveries unusually expanded man's horizons; the development of production required serious scientific research. Modern science relied increasingly on experiment and mathematics. Young science of the 17th-18th centuries. achieved outstanding success primarily in mechanics and mathematics.
Philosophy of the New Age — fourth historical stage in the development of European philosophy— not only relied on the data of the natural sciences, but also acted as their support, arming science with logic and research methods. The philosophical basis for experimental knowledge was the empirical-inductive method F. Bacon(1561-1626), while mathematical science found its philosophical methodology in the works of R. Descartes (1596-1650).
Philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was predominantly rationalistic. In the 18th century first in France, then in other countries of Western Europe, the socio-philosophical movement Education , which played an outstanding role in the ideological preparation of the French Revolution of 1789-1793.
From the last quarter of the 18th century. and until the middle of the 19th century. Germany is coming to the forefront in the field of philosophical creativity. Being backward at that time economically and politically, this country became the birthplace of great artists and thinkers: Kant, Goethe, Fichte, Hegel, Beethoven, Schiller, Schelling, Heine, Feuerbach. The outstanding theoretical merit of classical German philosophy was the overcoming of the contemplative, naturalistic view of the world, the awareness of man as a creative, active subject, and the in-depth development of the general concept of development - dialectics.
In the middle of the 19th century. There (in Germany) Marxism arose, the philosophical heir of German classics and European rationalism. Marx's main contribution to philosophy was the discovery and substantiation of the materialist understanding of history and the in-depth development - based on the material of the bourgeois society of his time - of materialist dialectics. However, Marxism entered the real social life of mankind (in the 20th century in particular) mainly through its other side - not the scientific and philosophical, but the ideological side, as the ideology of open and harsh class confrontation, justifying (in the name of abstract class interests) extreme forms of class struggle and violence.
European rationalism (from Bacon to Marx) in the dialectic of the social and the individual, he gave undoubted priority to the social (general). The study of classes, formations, and historical eras moved to the forefront, while the problems of the individual—the internal organization of the personality—remained in the shadows (the phenomenon of the unconscious also remained in the shadows). But real life experience convinced us that reason is not the only force governing the behavior of man and society. On this basis, in the 19th century. arises irrational philosophy (A. Schopenhauer, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche), which began to assign the leading role in the life and destinies of people not to reason, but to passion, will, and instincts. Irrationalist philosophers saw and expressed with great force the shadow side of life and progress. But they drew different conclusions from this.
Schopenhauer's ideal- nirvana, i.e. detachment from life as unconditional evil. Kierkegaard demands that we recognize that the highest truths (which include deeply intimate experiences of fear and expectation of death) cannot be expressed, but can only be experienced by each person alone and in his own way. Nietzsche's voluntarism is only outwardly “optimistic”, since it affirms the will to power as to the fullness of life. But this is a blind life, without any reasonable purpose. Nietzsche did not hide his extremely hostile attitude towards Christianity.
The main stages of the formation and development of philosophical thought.
Since European philosophy developed in parallel with culture, its history is usually divided into 5 stages.
1.Philosophy of antiquity (VI century BC - III century BC). This is the stage of the emergence of philosophical thought as such. The specificity of Greek philosophy, especially in the initial period of its development, is the desire to understand the essence of nature, the cosmos, and the world as a whole. This is exactly what the first Greek philosophers - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and somewhat later - the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, Democritus, etc. strove for. Then, thanks to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, as well as their followers and opponents from later eras, philosophy acquires the features that will be inherent her throughout her history.
Ancient philosophy arose as a spontaneous-dialectical natural philosophy. It is to her that ancient thought owes two remarkable ideas: the idea of a universal, universal connection of all things and phenomena of the world and the idea of endless, world development. Already in ancient philosophy, two alternative epistemological directions emerged: materialism and idealism. The materialist Democritus, ahead of centuries and millennia, put forward the brilliant idea of the atom as the smallest particle of matter. The idealist Plato brilliantly developed the dialectic of individual things and general concepts, which has enduring significance in all areas of human creativity to this day. Often, historians of ancient philosophy draw a line between earlier and later ancient philosophers, classifying the former as the “Pre-Socratics” and the latter as the Socratic schools. This emphasizes the truly key role of Socrates (5th century BC) as a philosopher who moved the center of philosophical knowledge from the problems of natural philosophy to the field of human knowledge, primarily ethics. The ideas of late antiquity (the Hellenistic era) inherited the humanistic thought of Socrates. At the same time, deeply experiencing the impending death of ancient culture, the philosophers of this period took an undoubted step from Socratic rationalism towards irrationalism and mysticism, which became especially noticeable in the philosophy of Plato’s followers - the Neoplatonists.
2. Philosophy of the Middle Ages (IV – XIV centuries). The philosophy of this era was closely linked with theology, forming its integral part. In fact, the philosopher, sage, theologian, prophet and teacher of ethics at this time were represented by one figure. The main problem of philosophy of this period is the existential relationship between God and man. In spirit and content, this is a religious (Christian) philosophy, which substantiated and strengthened the Christian (Catholic) faith in all countries of Western Europe.
Philosophers and theologians who developed the basic dogmas of the Christian religion in the first centuries of the new era received the highest degree of recognition - they began to be revered as the “fathers” of the Church. One of the most prominent “fathers of the church” was Augustine the Blessed (IV-V centuries AD). God, in his opinion, is the creator of the world, and he is also the creator, the engine of history. The philosopher and theologian saw the meaning and destiny of history in the worldwide transition of people from paganism to Christianity. Each person bears full responsibility for his deeds and actions, since God gave man the ability to freely choose between good and evil.
3.Philosophy of the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). secularization - liberation from religion and church institutions. In this era, the focus is on man, which characterizes philosophy as anthropocentric. The most important distinguishing feature of this era is its focus on art. This is directly related to changes in attitudes towards people. - This is actually the creator who creates the world, and therefore he is equal to God. The third, transitional stage in the history of Western philosophy is the philosophy of the Renaissance. There are Early Renaissance (XIII-XIV centuries) and Late Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). The very name of the era is very eloquent; we are talking about the revival of culture, art, philosophy of the ancient world, the achievements of which are recognized as a model for modernity. The great representatives of this era were comprehensively developed people (Dante, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Montaigne, Cervantes, Shakespeare). Brilliant artists and thinkers put forward in their work not a theological, but a humanistic system of values. Social thinkers of this time - Machiavelli, More, Campanella - created projects for an ideal state that expressed, first of all, the interests of a new social class - the bourgeoisie.
4.Philosophy of the New Age (XVII – XIX centuries). Modern philosophy is characterized by an almost limitless belief in the omnipotence of reason, which, as it seems to philosophers, is capable of cognizing nature and leading people. to a wonderful future. Modern times are a period of development and formation of science, which is presented as a means of improving human life. The problems of epistemology come to the fore, and, consequently, philosophy becomes the “handmaiden of science”: philosophers are concerned about the problems of the methods by which we understand the world. In the XVI-XVII centuries. capitalism began to establish itself in Western European countries. The great geographical discoveries unusually expanded man's horizons; the development of production required serious scientific research. Modern science relied increasingly on experiment and mathematics. Young science of the 17th-18th centuries. achieved outstanding success, primarily in mechanics and mathematics.
The philosophy of modern times - the fourth historical stage in the development of European philosophy - not only relied on the data of the natural sciences, but also acted as their support, arming science with logic and research methods. The philosophical basis for experimental knowledge was the empirical-inductive method of F. Bacon (1561-1626), while mathematical science found its philosophical methodology in the works of R. Descartes (1596-1650).
Philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was predominantly rationalistic. In the 18th century first in France, then in other countries of Western Europe, the socio-philosophical movement Enlightenment made itself widely and powerfully known, playing an outstanding role in the ideological preparation of the French Action of 1789-1793.
5. Newest philosophy (XX - XXI centuries), which is also called modern. Modern philosophy is a very complex phenomenon that combines all the questions that philosophy has ever asked. (see ticket about rationalism)
No. 17. Scientific method- a set of basic methods and techniques for solving problems in order to obtain new knowledge, generalize and deepen the understanding of the totality of facts and theories in any field of science. The scientific method is dialectical and in this it is opposed to the religious way of knowledge.
The scientific method includes methods of studying phenomena, systematization, and adjustment of new and previously acquired knowledge. Inferences and conclusions are made using rules and principles of reasoning based on empirical (observable and measurable) data about an object. The basis for obtaining data are observations and experiments. To explain observed facts, hypotheses are put forward and theories are built, on the basis of which conclusions and assumptions are formulated. The resulting predictions are verified by experiment or collection of new facts.
The main aspect of the scientific method, regardless of the type of science, is the requirement for objectivity, which excludes a subjective approach to interpreting the results, regardless of the level and authority of the scientist. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented, the participation of other independent scientists to verify the original data, methods, research results, or the use of alternative research. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to compare the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.
Specifics This type of cognition consists primarily in the fact that the object here is the activity of the subjects of cognition themselves. That is, people themselves are both subjects of knowledge and real actors. In addition to this, the object of cognition in turn becomes the interaction between the object and the subject of cognition. In other words, in contrast to the natural sciences, technical and new sciences, in the very object of social cognition, its subject is initially present.
To the complexities of social cognition explained by objective reasons, that is, reasons that have grounds in the specifics of the object, are added the complexities associated with the subject of cognition. Such a subject is ultimately the person himself, although he is involved in social relations and scientific associations, although he has his own individual experience and intelligence, interests and values, needs and preferences, etc. Thus, when characterizing social cognition, one should take into account both its personal factor.
Finally, it is necessary to note the socio-historical conditionality of social cognition, including the degree of advancement of the material and spiritual life of society, its social structure and the interests prevailing in it.
A certain combination of all certain factors and aspects of the specifics of social cognition determines the diversity of points of view and concepts that explain the promotion and functioning of social life. In parallel, the given specificity largely determines the nature and characteristics of different aspects of social cognition: ontological, epistemological and value (axiological).
1. The ontological (from the Greek on (ontos) - existing) side of social cognition concerns the explanation of the existence of society, the patterns and trends of its functioning and advancement. At the same time, it also affects such a subject of social life as a person, to the level at which he is included in the system of social relations. In the aspect under consideration, the previously defined difficulty of social life, and in turn its dynamism, combined with the personal element of social cognition, are the objective basis for the diversity of points of view on the issue of the essence of people’s social existence.
2. The epistemological (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge) side of social cognition is associated with the characteristics of this cognition itself, primarily with the question as a whole of whether it is capable of formulating its laws and categories and whether it contains them in general. In new words, we are talking about whether social cognition can lay claim to truth and have the status of science? The answer to this question largely depends on the scientist’s position on the ontological problem of social cognition, that is, on whether the objective existence of society and the presence of objective laws in it are recognized. As in cognition in general, in social cognition ontology largely determines epistemology.
The epistemological side of social cognition also includes solving the following problems:
How is cognition of social phenomena carried out?
What are the chances of their knowledge and what are the limits of knowledge;
The role of social practice in social cognition and the significance of the personal experience of the knowing subject;
The role of various kinds of sociological research and social experiments in social cognition.
3. The value - axiological side of social cognition (from the Greek axios - valuable), which plays an important role in understanding its specifics, since every cognition, and mainly social, is associated with certain value patterns, predilections and interests of all cognizing subjects . The value approach manifests itself from the very beginning of cognition - from the selection of the object of study. This selection is carried out by a certain subject with his life and educational experience, individual goals and objectives. In addition, value prerequisites and priorities largely determine not only the selection of the object of cognition, although also its forms and methods, but also the specifics of the interpretation of the consequences of social cognition.
The ontological, epistemological and axiological aspects of social cognition are closely interconnected, forming an integral structure of people’s cognitive activity.
Freedom and Necessity - philosophical categories that express the relationship between human activity and the objective laws of nature and society. Idealists, for the most part, consider self-esteem and non-self... as mutually exclusive concepts; they understand self-determination as the self-determination of the spirit, as the self-determination of the will, as the ability to act in accordance with the expression of will, which is not determined by external conditions. They believe that the idea of determinism, which establishes the necessity of human actions, completely removes human responsibility and makes it impossible to morally evaluate his actions. Only unrestricted and unconditional S. acts, from their point of view, as the only basis of human responsibility, and, consequently, of ethics. Extreme subjectivism in S.'s explanations is allowed, for example, by adherents of existentialism (Sartre, Jaspers, etc.). A diametrically opposite and also incorrect view is held by supporters of mechanistic determinism. They deny S. will, citing the fact that a person’s actions and actions in all cases are determined by external circumstances beyond his control. This metaphysical concept means the absolutization of objective science and leads to fatalism. Scientific explanation of S. and n. based on the recognition of their organic relationship. The first attempt to substantiate this view. belongs to Spinoza, who defined S. as conscious N. An expanded concept of the dialectical unity of S. and science. from an idealistic position was given by Hegel. A scientific, dialectical-materialistic solution to the problem of socialism and science. comes from the recognition of objective N. as primary, and the will and consciousness of man as secondary, derivative. N. exists in drive and society in the form of objective laws; unknown laws manifest themselves as “blind” N. At the beginning of his history, man, being unable to penetrate the secrets of nature, remained a slave of the unknown N. and was not free. The more deeply a person comprehended objective laws, the more conscious and free his activity became. In addition to nature, the limitation of human socialism is also due to the dependence of people on the social forces that dominate them in certain historical conditions. In a society divided into antagonistic classes, social relations are hostile to people and dominate them. The socialist revolution destroys class antagonism and frees people from social oppression. With the socialization of the means of production, the anarchy of production is replaced by a planned, conscious organization of production. In the course of building socialism and communism, the living conditions of people, which until now had dominated them in the form of alien, spontaneous forces, come under human control. There is a leap from the kingdom of necessity to the kingdom of freedom (Engels). All this gives people the opportunity to consciously use objective laws in their practical activities, expediently and systematically direct the development of society, create all the necessary material and spiritual prerequisites for comprehensive; th development of the society and each individual, i.e. for the implementation of genuine S. as the ideal of the communist society.
№18. One of the directions of the materialistic approach to society is geographical determinism, according to which the decisive factor in the development of society is the natural environment (biosphere, flora and fauna, climate, soil fertility, natural resources, minerals, etc.). According to supporters of this theory (Montesquieu, G. Buckle, L.I. Mechnikov, etc.), nature completely determines not only the nature of human economic activity, the location of productive forces, but also the essence of the political system, culture, psychology, life, traditions, customs, etc. Emphasizing the central importance of geographical conditions as a stimulus for social development, the scientists who developed this view, having spoken out at one time against the traditional idealistic explanations of history by predestination (theology), supernatural intervention (Thomism) or random coincidence, did not at all deny the active role the person himself in achieving economic well-being.
Another type of materialist understanding of history is historical materialism (K. Marx, L. Morgan, F. Engels). It puts forward the improvement of material production as the main source of development of society. Thus, the main factor determining all aspects of social life is the method of production of material life, i.e., the production of means of subsistence and the reproduction of man himself.
At the same time, historical materialism does not deny the role of ideological impulses, motives, passions in people’s activities, nor the importance of scientific ideas and the dissemination of knowledge. He only points out that these ideological motivations and passions of people - and precisely the masses of people, as well as the level of development of science, the clashes of contradictory ideas and aspirations, goals and interests are themselves determined by the objective conditions of the production of material life.
The materialistic understanding of history should also include a position that can conventionally be called technological determinism (R. Aron, D. Bell, W. Rostow). This concept states that social development depends on the level of technology and production technology, and corresponding changes in people's economic activities. For example, the French philosopher and sociologist R. Aron (1905-1983) considers the basis of social life “the economy, in particular the productive forces, that is, the technical equipment of society together with the organization. American sociologist, economist and historian W. W. Rostow (b. 1916), author of the theory of “stages of economic growth”, the level of development of technology, industry, the economy as a whole, the share of capital accumulation in national income in unity with the natural sciences associated with technology, considers it not only as a determining factor in social development, but also as the basis for identifying “stages of growth” in human history.
The idealistic understanding of society comes from the recognition of the decisive role of the spiritual factor, ideal forces in the functioning and movement of human society. But since the ideal in social life is very diverse, idealism manifests itself in different ways. Some scientists believe that there is a certain world will, a world mind, or, as Hegel said, an absolute spirit, which, through differentiation, finds its other existence in the form of nature, society and man, and which creates history and dictates all the actions of people. This is one version of an idealistic understanding of history. It can be called objective-idealistic.
Another variety, subjective-idealistic, is associated with the absolutization of ideological impulses, motives, goals, interests, and volitional efforts of people in the life of society. “Opinions rule the world,” proponents of this view say. Coit (1798-1857) believes that “ideas govern and revolutionize the world.
The third type of idealistic understanding of society is based on the recognition of the decisive role in its development of the dissemination of knowledge and the progress of science. Thus, outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment Voltaire, Holbach, Diderot, Helvetius, Rousseau and many others. were convinced that in order to improve the social structure and correct social relations, the widespread dissemination of knowledge and especially the understanding of the “natural order,” i.e., the laws of nature, are necessary, and that the steady improvement of the human mind will lead to a gradual improvement of society. This position is called scientism (from Latin scientia knowledge, science). Its modern representatives absolutize the role of natural scientific knowledge, declaring science the absolute standard of all culture.
Moreover, in different periods of history and in different situations, first one or the other comes to the fore. However, in studies of a specific situation, those who support this point of view inevitably lean towards either materialism or idealism, since the factors themselves turn out to be either predominantly material, objective in nature, or predominantly ideal, spiritual, subjective.
Beyond these limits, the problem of the relationship between the material and the ideal loses its significance, because in real social life, the real process of life, all social phenomena - economics, politics, everyday life, science, culture, and consciousness - are intertwined, interdependent and interdependent.
№19. The most important feature of philosophical thought in Russia is the close attention of philosophers to social issues. Almost all Russian thinkers in their philosophical constructs gave “recipes” for remaking society and built some kind of model for the future development of the country. This feature was largely associated with the specifics of the historical path of Russia, which did not fit into either the Western or Eastern schemes of changing formations and eras. The socio-economic system of Russia was a peculiar combination of elements of eastern, western and its own unique structures. Russia clearly lagged behind Western Europe in the development of civilization, life, and law. All this could not help but raise questions for the Russian intelligentsia about what path the country should take in its development, what social transformations are necessary to remake the “vile Russian reality” (V. Belinsky), what kind of future Russia should strive for. There is no history that cares so much about tomorrow as Russian history, G. Shpet aptly defined. Therefore, Russian philosophy is utopian, aimed at the future, it seeks the place of Russia in this universal future. In this regard, N. Berdyaev wrote: “Russians, in their creative impulse, are looking for a perfect life... Even Russian romanticism did not strive for detachment, but for a better reality... Russian emotional revolutionism was determined... by intolerance of reality, its untruth and ugliness.”
Projects for social transformation were given in a variety of ways: from passionate calls for a popular revolution and socialist reorganization of society to religious utopias of universal brotherhood and Christian love, striking in their moral purity and beauty. But, despite the dissimilarity of the “diagnoses” of social diseases in Russia and the even more obvious discrepancy in the “recipes” for their treatment, almost all Russian thinkers in their works did not ignore problems associated with the present and future of Russia, almost all tried to give their own guidelines for its development. Therefore, Russian philosophy is a philosophy addressed to questions about the meaning of history and Russia’s place in it; it is a socially active philosophy, associated not only with the knowledge and description of the world, but also with changing it.
If we consider ontology (the study of being), epistemology (the theory of knowledge), anthropology (the study of man) and philosophy of history (the study of the most general perspectives and patterns of the historical process) to be the main spheres of philosophical knowledge, then the Russian philosophical tradition is characterized by close attention to the last one.
№20. Alienation- such a process (state, attitude, phenomenon) when certain qualities, properties of a person, products of his creativity turn into a force that dominates a person and is hostile to him. Thus, both the state and science represent the greatest achievements of civilization, ultimately designed to protect it from destruction. However, the state built by people is out of their control, the fruits of scientific and technological activity threaten the very existence of life on the planet, art gives rise to envy between masters (Mozart and Salieri), religion, designed to foster love for all God’s creations, serves as a refuge for fanatics, and morality, alas, too often becomes the cause of neuroses and suicides.
Alienation manifests itself both at the level of consciousness and at the level of being. For the main manifestations of alienation at the level of consciousness a feeling of loneliness, a consciousness of the meaninglessness of existence, a feeling of powerlessness, a feeling of inauthenticity of one’s own existence (a feeling of loss of one’s true self), a distrustful, hostile attitude towards social institutions, towards ideology, towards cultural values are accepted. Moreover, we are talking not just about a more or less widespread mood, but about a systemic violation of public consciousness, about the state of mind as a whole.
At the level of being manifestations of alienation are varied and painful.
Firstly, alienation in the field of production. Alienation of the products of labor and scientific and technical creativity (creations go beyond the control of their creator). Alienation of the means of production (the scientist, as a rule, does not dispose of them either). Alienation of work activity itself (it would seem that it is work that “creates” a person, allows him to self-realize, but professional specialization leads to the impoverishment of the individual, to loss of health, to competition and antagonism).
Secondly, alienation in the sphere of consumption, which manifests itself, in particular, in consumer race, in the process of which needs are imposed on a person that do not correspond to his nature and interests, and he himself turns into an appendage of uncontrollably expanding production. Spends his short life making money. Sometimes to get out of poverty, and sometimes - for the sake of acquiring expensive things that he would not need if not for fashion, considerations of prestige, the “rut”. In order to "have", the scientist stops "be", his existence becomes impersonal, alienated, inauthentic. He loses touch with the people closest to him.
Third, alienation affects all social institutions (state, church, family, science), unfolds between man and nature, is found between past generations and current ones (as the values and goals of historical development change), breaks out in interclass, interethnic, interfaith conflicts.
What are the sources of alienation (and, accordingly, ways to overcome it):
1. The Fall of man led to his alienation from God and to subsequent history full of suffering, loneliness, and fear. Alienation is overcome on the path of religious faith and salvation of the soul (a concept common among religious philosophers).
2. A person alienates his essence, directs his love to the image of a supernatural being invented by himself; accordingly, alienation is overcome through criticism of religion (Feuerbach's atheistic concept).
3. The individual voluntarily alienates his rights in favor of the state (or society) with all the ensuing sad consequences: the state enslaves its creator (the socio-political aspect of the problem, illuminated in the works of Hobbes, Rousseau, Helvetius).
4. In the process of its development, the world spirit alienates itself into its otherness, into nature, and then in the process knowledge of the objective world opposing it, this alienation is removed (Hegel’s theory). Alienation is the result of the eternal contradiction between creative life and its frozen, objectified forms and products (Simmel’s theory). Such frozen forms include not only any physical bodies, “things,” but also established theories, concepts, and principles.
5. The origins of alienation are in the division of labor, in the spontaneous nature of production, in the dominance of commodity-money relations and private property, which lead to the emergence of classes and the exploitation of man by man (the socio-economic aspect of the problem revealed in the works of Marx).
6. Alienation is associated with the formation of industrial society, with industrialization, which leads to an increase in disintegration and individualism (to the loss of a sense of community), to bureaucratization, to the dominance of soulless intellect and the suppression of creativity (Spengler, Weber, Durkheim emphasized these points).
7. Alienation stems from our way of relating to nature: to surrounding things, to our own body. We strive to cognize an object and subjugate it to our will (so as not to perish). You cannot conquer the world alone, but joint activity presupposes coercion. Coercion is physical, economic, ideological, moral. Therefore, the reverse side of the knowledge-conquest of nature is the spread of the practice of domination-subordination in society itself. This approach was developed in the works of Marcuse, Adorno, and partly in the works of Michel Foucault and today is considered the most promising.
Domination- this is a type of interpersonal relationships and a type of economic structure, this is an ideology, this is a way of life for everyone. The power of man over man is visible everywhere: the master over the slave, the state over the citizen, parents over children, the teacher over the student, the doctor over the patient, the intelligent and knowledgeable over the ignorant... Any social group tries to determine the behavior of others. Often the dictate is mutual: for example, not only the consumer of scientific products depends on the manufacturer, but also the commodity producer and scientist - on the consumer (for example, on the military-industrial complex). However, mutual violence does not make us free. Instead of being ready to fulfill the high mission of understanding the world, the scientist develops a need to command and obey, to participate in power. Domination (the desire to dominate) distorts the meaning of moral norms and laws, disfigures society, corrodes the soul and leads to total alienation.
№21.Material production is the basis of life and development of society
Economy is the material basis for the existence of society. People cannot exist without consuming. They must satisfy their material, spiritual, and social needs. In the first place are the material needs of a person. Essential means of life are not given to man by nature ready-made; they must be produced.
Production is understood as the process of creating goods necessary for the existence and development of society. The process of production of material goods in any society includes three elements: human labor, objects of labor and means of labor.
Labor is a purposeful, conscious human activity aimed at modifying the substances and forces of nature and adapting them to meet one’s needs.
Everything that a person influences in the process of labor is called the subject of labor. Objects of labor can be given to people directly by nature itself (mineral deposits in the bowels of the earth, forests, rivers, lakes) and can be previously exposed to labor (mined potassium salt, ore, oil or cotton, fabric). The latter are called raw materials or raw materials.
Means of labor are things, or a set of things, with the help of which a person influences the object of his labor. Among the means of labor, it is necessary to highlight: firstly, tools or mechanical means of labor (machines, machines, equipment, tools); secondly, means of labor adapted for storing objects of labor and finished products (vascular system of production); thirdly, the means of labor that create the material conditions of the production process (buildings, structures, canals, roads, etc.).
Means of labor and objects of labor together constitute the means of production. However, it should be noted that the means of production become effective only in conjunction with labor power. Therefore, the means of production and people with skills, abilities, and experience constitute the productive forces of society.
The main and decisive force of society are people who inevitably enter into certain relationships with each other. Relations between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, which they enter into regardless of their will and desire, are called production relations. Production relations are not constant; they are constantly being improved, and their development is carried out in direct connection with the productive forces. It is necessary to distinguish between organizational-economic and socio-economic relations. Organizational and economic relations develop between people in the process of organizing production, i.e. in the process of division of labor, its cooperation, concentration, centralization of production. Socio-economic relations arise between people regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. Here the determining role is played by the relations of ownership of the means of production.
Productive forces and production relations in their unity form the mode of production. Each stage of development of society is characterized by its own specific production relations. The totality of these relations constitutes the economic basis of society. A certain superstructure rises above the base. The superstructure is the political, legal, philosophical, religious and other views of society and the institutions corresponding to them.
Productive forces, production relations and the corresponding superstructure form a socio-economic formation and characterize the system of society.
Every society has deep laws of economic development that are studied by economic sciences. Economic sciences are a complex of sciences whose functions and tasks include knowledge of the objective laws of the economic system of society in the process of its historical development, statistical processing and theoretical systematization of the phenomena of economic life, development of practical recommendations in the field of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of vital goods.
No. 22. Formation method was developed by Marxists, it forms the basis of the materialist understanding of society. Marxists introduced such a concept as formation. Formation is a certain type of society, an integral social system, developing and functioning on the basis of the dominant mode of production according to general or specific laws. Within the framework of “Soviet Marxism”, the opinion was established that, from the point of view of the formational approach, humanity in its historical development necessarily goes through five main formations: Primitive communal system→Slavery→Feudalism→Capitalism(Development of private property relations and exploitation)→ Communism. Civilizational approach The main criterion implies the spiritual and cultural sphere.
Followers formational approach They see progress (qualitative improvement) in the development of society, a transition from lower to higher types of society. On the contrary, supporters civilizational approach emphasize the cyclical nature and equivalence of different social systems in the development of society.
In addition to the two main - formational and civilizational - approaches, there are some other approaches to the study of the typology of the state.
It should be noted that one of the most developed theories of the technological direction is the theory of “stages of economic growth”, the author of which is recognized as the American sociologist and political figure Walt Rostow. According to this theory of technological direction, all societies in their economic development can be attributed to one of the following five stages of economic growth:
1. Traditional society - at this stage, society does not use any achievements of science and technology, and is more inclined towards farming than towards other branches of occupation.
2. Transitional society - at this stage, society is undergoing a transformation, experiencing changes in science and technology, and moving to a higher level of development.
Large periods and stages of the historical development of philosophy are based on socio-economic formations, methods of social and spiritual production. Following this view, they talk about ancient philosophy (the philosophy of a slave society), medieval philosophy (the philosophy of the era of feudalism), Renaissance philosophy (the philosophy of the emerging bourgeois formation), modern philosophy (the philosophy of developed capitalism) and modern philosophy, meaning philosophical thought of the 20th century The national uniqueness of philosophical ideas should not be underestimated. In this context, ancient Greek, German, French, and Russian philosophy are considered as relatively independent spiritual constructs.
The first historically major stage in the development of philosophy - ancient philosophy(6th century BC - 6th century AD). Its creators were the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans (the latter in late antiquity). Ancient philosophy is divided into four periods: naturalistic (6-5 centuries BC) with its problems of the origin of the world, the essence of nature and the cosmos. The main representatives are Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Democritus; humanistic (5-4 centuries BC), whose heroes - the Sophists and their opponent Socrates - first tried to determine the essence of man; the classical period (4th century BC), when Plato and Aristotle formulated the main philosophical problems and areas of philosophical knowledge; the period of Hellenistic schools (4th century BC - 6th century AD) of Cynicism, Stoicism, skepticism and Epicureanism.
The second stage in the development of European philosophy - philosophy of the Middle Ages(2-15 centuries AD). This is a religious (Christian) philosophy that substantiated and strengthened the Christian (Catholic) faith in all Western European countries. Medieval philosophy is divided into Patristics as the teaching of the church fathers, aimed at protecting Christianity against pagan and heretical teachings, and represented by St. Augustine, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Scholasticism (8-15 centuries) occupied with abstract issues - the question of the relationship between knowledge and faith, a dispute about universals in the person of Thomas Aquinas, Anselm of Canterbury, William of Occam.
The third, transitional stage in the history of Western philosophy is Renaissance philosophy, associated with the revival of culture, art, philosophy of the ancient world. There is a distinction between the Early Renaissance, called the era of Humanism (15th century), when man was at the center of philosophical research (Petrarch, Valla, Erasmus of Rotterdam), and the Late Renaissance (16th century), focused on natural science (Bruno, Copernicus, Leonardo).
Philosophy of the New Age- the fourth historical stage in the development of European philosophy - not only relied on the data of the natural sciences, but also acted as their support, arming science with logic and research methods. The philosophical basis for experimental knowledge was the empirical-inductive method of F. Bacon (1561-1626), while mathematical science found its philosophical methodology in the works of R. Descartes (1596-1650). Philosophy 17-18 centuries. was predominantly rationalistic, and in addition to Descartes was represented by G. Leibniz and B. Spinoza.
From the last quarter of the 18th century. and until the middle of the 19th century. comes to the forefront in the field of philosophical creativity German classical philosophy, which became the birthplace of great thinkers: Kant, Goethe, Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Feuerbach. The outstanding theoretical merit of classical German philosophy was the overcoming of the contemplative, naturalistic view of the world, the awareness of man as a creative, active subject, and the in-depth development of the general concept of development - dialectics.
In the middle of the 19th century. There (in Germany) Marxism arose, the philosophical heir of German classics and European rationalism. Marx's main contribution to philosophy was the discovery and substantiation of the materialist understanding of history and the in-depth development of materialist dialectics. Problems of the internal organization of personality in the 19th century. became the subject irrational philosophy (A. Schopenhauer, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche), which began to assign the leading role in the life and destinies of people not to reason, but to passion, will, and instincts.
Turn of the 19th-20th centuries. - the most important milestone on the path of philosophical thought, opening the newest modern stage of its complex and contradictory history. Philosophy of the 20th century. can be called postclassical, since it differs from the “classical” stage of its development. New directions of philosophy have appeared: positivism, recognizing only physical-experimental knowledge as reliable and abandoning ideological and philosophical problems (Comte, Mill); P psychoanalysis- who drew attention to the role of the unconscious in people’s lives as a powerful energy principle (Freud, Jung). Phenomenology, describing the essential characteristics of consciousness and the diverse types of human experience from the standpoint of strict science (Brentano, Husserl). Existentialism, recognizing the dramatic existence of the human personality as the only true reality and asserting the primacy of human existence in relation to society (Kierkegaard, Heidegger, Sartre). Structuralism, associated with the search for logical structures that objectively exist behind the diversity of cultural phenomena (Foucault, Barthes).
The history of philosophy as a science arose simultaneously with the formation of human civilization. Questions of the origin of the surrounding world, life and man have a long history and date back to the period of the primitive communal system. Already at that time, people asked themselves questions about the structure of the world around them, about the meaning of life on Earth. And this interest prompted him to study his surroundings. This is how philosophy arose. This is how science arose from philosophy. Thus, primitive attempts to reveal the secret of existence put man on the path of civilization.
The emergence of philosophy
Primitive man had a very limited supply of knowledge and skills, but an endless opportunity to observe the world around him. Everything that happened around him could not be explained or controlled. Therefore, the isolation of man was accompanied by magical rites, nature and the heavens became animated, and natural processes began to be explained by divine intervention. The complex structure of the structure of the surrounding world was helped to be built with the help of the development of language - it was words denoting abstract concepts that laid the foundation for primitive knowledge of the world.
Already in historical times, chaotic meanings about nature have undergone changes. The first coherent theories of the universe have been known since the times of the first world civilizations. Individual regions of the world formed their ideas about the world around them depending on the conditions of progress, the development of applied skills and the formation of theoretical science. Periods in the history of philosophy are inextricably linked with socio-economic changes that affected all peoples and states on the way to modern civilization.
Philosophy of India
The history and philosophy of science could rightfully call the Ancient East its birthplace. In these territories, the agricultural way of life prevailed, new principles of building society more actively developed, there were various social classes, cities and civilizations arose. The sum of knowledge and experience contributed to the emergence and development of various disciplines, including philosophy.
The first mentions of the life of ancient civilizations were found in the written monuments of Ancient India. The found texts have not yet been fully deciphered, but they already give an idea of the life and customs of those times. Ancient Indian (Vedic) literature includes a vast body of texts, the oldest of which dates back to 1500 BC. e. The found set of texts was compiled and edited over nine centuries and is teachings and information of a primarily cultic and religious nature.
The religion of the Vedas is a complex complex of mythological ideas, rituals, and ceremonies. In them one can trace traces of the myths of the Indo-European Aryans, who previously lived on the territory of modern Europe, the legacy of Indo-Iranian views and a powerful layer of views of non-Indian cultures. Different peoples brought their myths and traditions, as well as information about their gods, to the Vedas. This is how Vedic polytheism arose, in which gods are like people. The earliest and most famous gods: Indra - the god of war and thunderstorms, Ushas - the goddess of the dawn, Vayu - the god of the wind and many others. Later, the gods Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva make their way into the pantheon.
The history of the development of philosophy more than once returns to ancient Indian teachings. Despite the archaic views, the teachings of prana and karma are still famous; the principles of these Vedas lay the foundation of new religions and methods of studying the world.
Buddhism
The first millennium brought many changes to ancient Indian society. The development of crafts, improvements in agriculture and the emerging power of monarchies brought changes in worldview. The old philosophy no longer met the requirements of the time, new schools arose that gathered their students and explained the world from their point of view. One of these schools was Buddhism. The founder of this teaching was Siddhartha Gautama, the son of an aristocrat and ruler from the Shakya family. In the prime of his life, he left home and after many years of wandering, he comprehended the right life and formulated the rules leading to enlightenment. He was called Buddha (awakened, enlightened), and the faith he professed was Buddhism.
At the center of Buddhism is the teaching of the Four Noble Truths. According to them, a person's entire life is suffering through which one must go. The path to the elimination of suffering is through right judgment, right action, right decisions, right speech, right living, right attention and concentration. Extremes such as asceticism and sensual pleasures are rejected by Buddhism. The circle of life is also accepted by Buddhism, but at the end of the path, the righteous will experience nirvana - liberation - and complete dissolution in the deity.
For a long time, Buddhist principles existed only in oral form. Canonical Buddhism emerged after many years of oral tradition, surrounding its teacher with many legends and miracles. Basic concepts were written down and reinterpreted, and many of the Buddha's laws are still alive today.
Philosophers of Ancient Greece
The history of Western philosophy begins in Ancient Greece. It was this country that became the founder of philosophical thought on the European continent. The history and philosophy of science among Greek thinkers acquired almost modern forms. The method of philosophizing developed by the Greeks is the first attempt at a methodological comprehension of existence.
The history of philosophy in Ancient Greece has four stages of development. The first period was called pre-Socratic. It dates back to the 5th-4th century BC. e. The need for new knowledge came along with a significant transformation of social relations. A new type of thinker appeared in Athens - the sophists, who concentrated their attention on the problems of the Greek city-states. At this time, the teaching of Pythagoras developed about number as the basis of all existence, about the order and chaos of Heraclitus, about the smallest particles of matter - the atoms of Democritus.
The second period dates back to the second half of the 5th century and is called the classical period. The main thinkers of this time were Plato, Aristotle and Socrates. Modern concepts of philosophy of history were developed based on the works. This attention to the thinkers of Athens continued for hundreds of years, until the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War. After this event, Athens loses its socio-political significance, but still remains the center of the political and cultural life of Ancient Greece. It was then that the first holistic picture of the world emerged, called Aristotle’s: the Earth is called the center of the Universe, and natural philosophy is the basis of all sciences. The classical Greek school laid the foundation for logic.
The third stage begins at the end of the 4th century BC. e. The history of philosophy calls it Hellenistic. Unlike the previous stage, in which various philosophical teachings prevailed, the Hellenists paid less attention to knowledge of the laws of the universe. They mainly specialized in opening schools that taught the philosophy of history. Briefly, this period can be called not scientific, but administrative - more attention was paid to the dissemination of scientific discoveries and philosophical views, rather than to knowledge of the laws of the world.
The fourth period is closely associated with Rome as a decisive force in the ancient world. The history of the development of philosophy calls this period Roman. Roman philosophy of the fourth stage was formed under the significant influence of Greek teachings. The arrival of the Athenian sages to Rome gave a certain impetus to the development of philosophical ideas. From this time on, three philosophical trends originated in Rome - skepticism, stoicism and Epicureanism. Also during this period, a completely new movement began, which had a decisive influence on the course of European history as a whole.
Christianity
The 1st-2nd century AD marks the development of Christianity. The subject of the history of philosophy reveals this phenomenon from both a religious and a philosophical point of view. Only those philosophers who managed to combine these two lines of development could count on recognition and a comfortable life. Numerous riots of the mob and uprisings of slaves were brutally suppressed, so the idea of redemption, the messiah and hope for a divine miracle found many, many admirers. Faith in deliverance was brought by a new religion - Christianity. The main difference from previous teachings was that the new religion did not distinguish between rich and poor, did not distinguish them by nationality or origin. All people were equal before God, everyone had the hope of finding eternal life - this is what the new philosophy of history taught people. We can briefly say about the essence of the new teaching - the most important concepts such as sacrifice were also rethought. The atonement for the sins of mankind by Jesus Christ made sacrifices unnecessary, and everyone could turn to God through prayer, without resorting to the mediation of priests and clergy.
The basis of Christianity was taken from Jewish traditions, which formed the basic principles of the philosophy of history. The brief formulation of Christianity sounded like “the atonement of the son of God for the sins of all nations.” Gradually, the structure of the Christian community changes, and the poor and oppressed are replaced by rich and powerful people. A church hierarchy emerges. The reign of Constantine the Great established Christianity as the main religion of the state.
Views about what being is in the history of the philosophy of Christianity are based on the teachings of Aristotle. The picture of the world he presented fit perfectly into the Christian canons and was not subject to discussion for almost one and a half thousand years. Scholasticism arises as an attempt to prove the existence of God based on inferences. Science practically stopped developing, and progress in scientific knowledge did not exist as a concept. Until now, the history of philosophy has not had such a detrimental influence on technological progress. Despite some inventions, people continued to live as in ancient times, because this is the kind of life that pleased God.
Middle Ages
The problems of the philosophy of history in the Middle Ages were almost entirely built on the principles of scholasticism. John Chrysostom and Thomas Aquinas became the largest theologians and philosophers in the field of scholasticism, their works are recognized by both the Western and Eastern branches of Christianity. They provide numerous evidence of the existence of God and man as a divine creation. The teachings of theologians are usually based on the Holy Scriptures and on the laws of logic - for example, the theory of dual truth distinguishes between philosophy and theology. Gnosticism and Manichaeism, which arose at that time, should be considered alternative currents of philosophical teaching. Gradually, the main philosophical teaching complements and explains Christian theology, and other movements were recognized as heresy and brutally eradicated.
Renaissance
The Renaissance, or Renaissance, was caused by the ideological and cultural development of European states. Crafts and trade actively developed, and a new class of townspeople was formed who made fortunes in manufacturing and trade. The Christian religion is no longer able to explain all the changes, and ancient humanistic teachings come to the fore. Ignoring earthly life for the sake of heavenly life is no longer relevant; society has begun to strive for earthly values.
The Renaissance awakens interest in the ancient philosophical heritage; the works of Plato and Aristotle are perceived differently - ancient philosophers are positioned as advisers, not teachers. This is how new philosophical movements arise, the most significant of which are humanism and Platonism.
Humanism, a movement that arose in medieval Italy, equates the divine and the human, without rejecting either one or the other. The principles of humanism are expressed in the works of Dante, Petrarch, and philologist Lorenzo Valla.
Platonism considered the only correct knowledge of the world through philosophy as the only reliable system of knowledge about man and the world. Platonists considered religion to be merely a conventional doctrine acceptable to the majority. Followers of Plato's teachings founded schools to develop and disseminate their understanding of what man means in the history of philosophy. It was the Platonic school that made it possible to discover the talents of Galileo, da Vinci and other scientists of that time.
Philosophy of the New Age
Over time, new forms of economic relationships emerge, which became the beginning of the capitalist economic system. New relationships in society and new views gave rise to new philosophical schools and new directions of philosophical thought. The founder of the new direction was Francis Bacon. He harshly criticized the principles of scholasticism and put experience at the head of all systems of studying the world.
Rene Descartes and David Hume, based on philosophical knowledge, form a new science, reflecting on the influence of sensations on the perception of the world; the works of Locke and Kant laid the foundation for the materialistic perception of the world.
Man and the world. Theories of mind
The development of classical philosophy of modern times reaches its peak in the works of Georg Hegel. His worldview was strongly influenced by the teachings of Plato, Rousseau, and Montesquieu. Hegel's philosophy of history for the first time forms the concept of dialectics - the original unity of life, which turns into its opposite. Overcoming duality, the world returns to unity, but becomes richer and more saturated.
In his treatises, the scientist develops a theory according to which the beginning of things can be understood from two points of view. Hegel's philosophy of history calls them transcendental philosophy, whose subject is the individual, and natural philosophy, which deals with the surrounding world. None of these currents is exhaustive, but together they are able to build a transparent and understandable picture of the universe.
Hegel's works brought into philosophy a clear designation of the foundations of reality as a kind of concept. The history of philosophy interprets this term not as a form of human thinking, but as the truest basis for all existence. For Hegel, the concept is the “essence of things,” its embryonic state, which is transformed and realized over time.
The history of Russian philosophy has many similarities with the teachings of Hegel. Russian philosophers have made attempts to build a new concept of perception of the world. Basically, the foundation for this is the Orthodox tradition of veneration of God and the Tsar and the theses of non-resistance to power. Key works of Russian philosophy belong to the pen of Chaadaev, Herzen, Vs. Solovyov, L. Tolstoy.
Philosophy in the works of K. Marx
Interest in the works of Karl Marx has not waned for about 200 years. His understanding of the world broke out of the framework of standard philosophy and formed an ideology - a phenomenon that set the tone for the socio-economic development of society in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the field of philosophy, Marx calls himself a student of Hegel and claims only relative independence in his works.
Marx considered labor to be the basis for the development of all social and economic relations, thus removing the question of the meaning of the existence of gods and nature. Man in Marx’s works is only a kind of quintessence of social life, capable of work. Thus, the importance of the individual, family and state is leveled, society and the stage of its economic development become fundamental. It is not surprising that Marxism has become a philosophical banner, under the banner of which various radical parties and social movements have arisen to this day.
Conclusion
A huge foundation of knowledge from the past underlies modern philosophical science. The history of philosophy continues its development and enriches the next generations with knowledge about the structure of the universe and the place of man in the world around him.
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