What is in the compact substance of the bone. The inert matter of the biosphere. Blood vessels and nerves

text_fields

arrow_upward

Bone matter consists of

Organic ( ossein ) substances - 1/3 and
inorganic (2/3) (mainly calcium salts, 95%) substances.

If the bone is exposed to a solution of hydrochloric acid, the calcium salts will dissolve, and the organic matter will remain, retaining the shape of the bone. Such decalcified bone acquires exceptional elasticity and is easily deformed. If the bone is burned, the organic matter burns out, but the inorganic remains. Such a bone retains its previous shape, but becomes extremely fragile. It can crack at the slightest touch. With age, the quantitative ratio of ossein and mineral salts changes. Children's bones contain more ossein and are therefore more elastic. In old age, the bones become more mineral salts, their content can reach 80%. Therefore, the bones of old people are more fragile, and when they fall, they often fracture.

Bones lying in the ground lose organic matter under the influence of bacteria and become brittle. In dry soil, bones are better preserved, since moisture is necessary for bacteria to multiply. Such bones are gradually mummified. In calcareous soil, bones are impregnated with calcium - "petrified".

Bone structure

text_fields

arrow_upward

Rice. 1.1.

The strongest bone in our skeleton is the tibia, the greatest weight falls on it while maintaining the body in an upright position.

This bone is capable of withstanding a load of up to 1650 kg, i.e. about 25 times her normal load. This is the margin of technical strength of a natural structure.

Bone is unique not only for the combination of hardness and elasticity due to its chemical composition. It is also distinguished by its exceptional lightness. This is due to the peculiarities of its microscopic structure.

The surface of the bone is covered with the periosteum (Fig. 1.1 Tibia (part of the periosteum is cut and folded back)).

It consists of two layers - external (connective tissue) and internal - osteogenic, containing bone stem cells and osteoblasts.

In case of bone fractures, osteoblasts "heal" the gap with coarse-fibrous bone tissue, forming a "callus".

The periosteum is rich in nerves and blood vessels, through which the bone is nourished and innervated.

On the cut through the bone, the heterogeneity of its structure is found. On the surface is the so-called dense, or compact, substance (substantia compacta), and in the depth - spongy (substantia spongiosa) (Fig. 1.2).

The thickness of the compact substance layer varies depending on the load experienced by the bone, and is most significant in the area of the diaphysis.

Rice. 1.2. Proximal end of the femur

The cancellous substance is formed by very thin bone beams, which are not randomly located, but in accordance with the distribution of functional loads on the entire bone or its parts.

The epiphyses of long bones, all short bones, part of mixed and flat bones, i.e. lightweight and strong parts of the skeleton that are stressed in different directions.

The diaphysis and some thin flat bones are almost completely devoid of cancellous substance. They perform the functions of support and movement.

Rice. 1.2. Proximal end of the femur:
A - frontal cut:
1 - bone marrow cavity;
2 - spongy substance;
3 - compact substance;

B - a diagram of the arrangement of the beams in the spongy substance.

Structural unit of bone tissue

text_fields

arrow_upward

The structural unit of bone tissue is osteon or Haversian system (fig. 1.3).

Rice. 1.3. Scheme of the structure of the tubular bone:

A - periosteum;
B - compact bone substance;
B - endost;
D - bone marrow cavity.
1 - insert plates;
2 - a layer of external common plates;
3 - blood vessels;
4 - osteocytes;
5 - osteon canal;
6 - piercing channel;
7 - fibrous layer of the periosteum;
8 - bone trabecula of spongy tissue;
9 - a layer of internal common plates;
10 - osteon

Osteon is a system of bone plates in the form of cylinders inserted into each other, between which bone cells - osteocytes - lie. Located in the center of the Havers osteon, the canal contains blood vessels that support the metabolism of bone cells. Insertion plates are located between the osteons. Osteons consist of a compact substance and spongy material bars. The distribution of the compact and cancellous substance depends on the functional conditions of the bone.

Bone cells of the spongy substance are filled with red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow is located in the central canal of tubular bones - the bone marrow cavity.

In adults, the entire cavity is filled with yellow bone marrow, but during the period of growth and development of the child, when intensive hematopoietic function is required, red bone marrow predominates. With age, it is gradually replaced by yellow.

A person knows a lot about his body, for example, where the organs are located, what function they perform. Why not penetrate deep into the bone and find out its structure and composition? This is very interesting, because the chemical composition of bones is very diverse. It helps to understand why each bone element is very important and what function it has.

basic information

Living bone in adults has:

50% water;
21, 85% - substances of inorganic type;
15.75% fat;
12.4% - collagen fibers.

Inorganic substances are different salts. Most of them are represented by lime phosphate (sixty percent). Calcareous carbonate and magnesium sulfate are present in not such a large amount (5.9 and 1.4%, respectively). Interestingly, all earthly elements are represented in the bones. Mineral salts are soluble. This requires a weak solution of nitric or hydrochloric acid. The dissolution process in these substances has its own name - decalcification. After it, only organic matter remains, which retains the bone shape.

Organic matter is porous and elastic. It can be compared to a sponge. What happens when this substance is removed through incineration? The bone remains the same in shape, but now it becomes fragile.

It is clear that only the interconnection of inorganic and organic substances makes the bone element strong and elastic. Bone becomes even stronger due to the composition of the spongy and compact substance.

Inorganic composition

About a century ago, it was believed that human bone tissue, more precisely, its crystals, are similar in structure to apatite. Over time, this has been proven. Bone crystals are hydroxylapatites, and are shaped like rods and plates. But crystals are only a fraction of the mineral phase of the tissue, the other fraction is amorphous calcium phosphate. Its content depends on the age of the person. Young people, teenagers and children have a lot of it, more than crystals. Subsequently, the ratio changes, therefore, at an older age, there are already more crystals.

Every day, the bones of the human skeleton lose and regain about eight hundred milligrams of calcium.

The body of an adult has more than one kilogram of calcium. It is found mainly in dental and bone elements. In combination with phosphate, hydroxylapatite is formed, which does not dissolve. The peculiarity is that the bulk of the calcium in the bones is regularly renewed. Every day, the bones of the human skeleton lose and regain about eight hundred milligrams of calcium.

The mineral fraction has many ions, but pure hydroxylapatite does not contain them. There are ions of chlorine, magnesium and other elements.

Organic composition

95% of the organic matrix is collagen. If we talk about its importance, then together with the mineral elements, it is the main factor on which the mechanical bone properties depend. Bone tissue collagen has the following characteristics:

it contains more hydroxyproline compared to skin collagen;
it contains many free ε-amino groups of oxylysine and lysine residues;
it contains more phosphate, the main part of which is associated with serine residues.

Dry demineralized bone matrix contains almost twenty percent non-collagen proteins. Among them there are parts of proteoglycans, but there are few of them. The organic matrix contains glucosaminoglycans. They are believed to be directly related to ossification. In addition, if they change, ossification occurs. The bone matrix contains lipids, a direct component of bone tissue. They are involved in mineralization. The bone matrix has another peculiarity - it contains a lot of citrate. Almost ninety percent of it is bone tissue. Citrate is believed to be essential for the mineralization process.

Bone substances

Most of the bones of an adult are composed of lamellar bone tissue, from which two types of substance are formed: spongy and compact. Their distribution depends on the functional loads on the bone.

If we consider the structure of bones, then a compact substance plays an important role in the formation of the diaphysis of tubular bone elements. It is like a thin plate covering the outside of their epiphyses, flat, spongy bones, which are built of spongy substance. The compact substance contains a lot of thin tubules, which consist of blood vessels and nerve fibers. Some canals are mostly parallel to the bony surface.

The walls of the channels located in the center are formed by plates, the thickness of which is from four to fifteen microns. They seem to be inserted into each other. One channel near itself can have twenty such plates. The composition of the bone includes an osteon, that is, the union of a canal located in the center, with plates near it. There are spaces between the osteons that are filled with insertion plates.

In the structure of the bone, the spongy substance is of no less importance. Its name suggests that it looks like a sponge. The way it is. It is built with beams, between which there are cells. Human bone is constantly under stress in the form of compression and stretching. It is they who determine the dimensions of the beams, their location.

The bone structure includes the periosteum, that is, the connective tissue sheath. It is firmly connected to the bone element with the help of fibers that extend into its depth. The nasal bone has two layers:

External, fibrous. It is formed by collagen fibers, due to which the shell is durable. This layer has nerves and blood vessels in its structure.
Internal, sprout. Its structure contains osteogenic cells, thanks to which the bone expands and recovers after injuries.

It turns out that the periosteum performs three main functions: trophic, protective, bone-forming. Speaking about the structure of the bone, the endosteum should also be mentioned. The bone is covered with it from the inside. It looks like a thin plate and carries an osteogenic function.

A little more about bones

Due to their amazing structure and composition, bones have unique characteristics. They are very flexible. When a person performs physical activity, exercises, bones show flexibility and adapt to changing circumstances. That is, depending on the load, the number of osteons increases or decreases, the thickness of the plates of substances changes.

Everyone can contribute to optimal bone development. This requires regular and moderate exercise. If your life is dominated by a sedentary lifestyle, your bones will begin to weaken and become thinner. There are diseases of the bones that weaken them, for example, osteoporosis, osteomyelitis. The structure of the bone can be influenced by the profession. Of course, heredity plays an important role.

So, a person is not able to influence some of the features of the bone structure. Still, some factors depend on it. If, from childhood, parents make sure that the child is eating properly and engaged in moderate physical activity, his bones will be in excellent condition. This will significantly affect his future, because the child will grow up to be a strong, healthy, that is, a successful person.

Question1

Bone development.

The formation of any bone occurs due to young connective tissue cells of mesenchymal origin - osteoblasts, which produce intercellular bone substance, which plays the main supporting role. According to the 3 stages of development of the skeleton, bones can develop on the basis of connective or cartilaginous tissue, therefore, the following types of ossification (osteogenesis) are distinguished.

1.Endesmal ossification(en - inside, desme - ligament) occurs in the connective tissue of the primary, integumentary, bones (Fig. 8). In a certain area of embryonic connective tissue, which has the shape of a future bone, islands of bone matter (ossification point) appear due to the activity of osteoblasts. From the primary center, the process of ossification spreads in all directions in a ray-like manner by imposing (apposition) bone substance along the periphery. The superficial layers of connective tissue, from which the integumentary bone is formed, remain in the form of the periosteum, from the side of which the bone increases in thickness.

2.Perichondral ossification(peri - around, chondros - cartilage) occurs on the outer surface of the cartilaginous rudiments of the bone with the participation of the perichondrium. The mesenchymal rudiment, which has the shape of a future bone, turns into a "bone" consisting of cartilaginous tissue and is a kind of cartilaginous model of the bone. Due to the activity of the osteoblasts of the perichondrium, which covers the cartilage from the outside, bone tissue is deposited on its surface, directly under the perichondrium, which gradually replaces the cartilaginous tissue and forms a compact bone substance.

3. With the transition of the cartilaginous model of the bone to the bone perichondrium becomes the periosteum (periosteum) and further deposition of bone tissue occurs due to the periosteum - periosteal ossification. Therefore, perichondral and periosteal osteogenesis follow one after the other.

4.Endochondral ossification(endo, Greek - inside, chondros - cartilage) occurs inside the cartilaginous primordia with the participation of the perichondrium, which gives off processes containing blood vessels inside the cartilage. Penetrating deep into the cartilage along with the vessels, the bone-forming tissue destroys the cartilage that has previously undergone calcification (the deposition of lime in the cartilage and the degeneration of its cells), and forms an island of bone tissue in the center of the cartilaginous model of the bone (ossification point). The spread of the process of endochondral ossification from the center to the periphery leads to the formation of cancellous bone substance. There is no direct transformation of cartilage into bone, but its destruction and replacement with new tissue, bone.

So, first, in the 2nd month of uterine life, primary points arise, from which the main parts of the bones develop, bearing the greatest load, that is, the bodies, or diaphysis, diaphysis, tubular bones (dia, Greek-between, phyo - growing; part of the bone growing between the pineal glands) and the ends of the diaphysis, called metaphysis, metaphysis (meta - behind, after). They ossify by peri- and endochondral osteogenesis. Then, shortly before birth or in the first years after birth, secondary points appear, from which the ends of the bones participating in the joints are formed by endochondral osteogenesis, that is, epiphyses, epiphysis (growth, epi - above), tubular bones. The ossification nucleus that has arisen in the center of the cartilaginous epiphysis grows and becomes a bony epiphysis, built of spongy substance. From the original cartilaginous tissue, only a thin layer of it remains for life on the surface of the pineal gland, which forms the articular cartilage.
In children, young men and even adults, additional islands of ossification appear, from which parts of the bone ossify, experiencing traction due to the attachment of muscles and ligaments to them, called apophysis, apophysis (process, apo - from): for example, the greater trochanter of the femur or additional points on processes of the lumbar vertebrae, ossified only in adults.
The nature of ossification associated with the structure of the bone is also functionally determined. So, bones and parts of bones, consisting mainly of cancellous bone substance (vertebrae, sternum, bones of the wrist and tarsus, epiphyses of tubular bones, etc.), ossify endochondral, and bones and parts of bones, built simultaneously from cancellous and compact matter ( base of the skull, diaphysis of tubular bones, etc.), develop by endo- and perichondral ossification.
A number of human bones are the product of the fusion of bones that independently exist in animals. Reflecting this process of fusion, the development of such bones occurs at the expense of foci of ossification, corresponding in their number and location to the number of fused bones. So, the human scapula develops from 2 bones participating in the shoulder girdle of lower terrestrial vertebrates (scapula and coracoid). Accordingly, in addition to the main nuclei of ossification in the body of the scapula, foci of ossification appear in its coracoid process (the former coracoid). The temporal bone, which grows together from 3 bones, ossifies from 3 groups of bone nuclei. Thus, the ossification of each bone reflects the functionally determined process of its phylogenesis.

Question 2

Bone as an organ (bone structure). Bone, os, ossis, as an organ of a living organism, it consists of several tissues, the most important of which is bone.

The chemical composition of the bone and its physical properties.

Bone matter consists of two kinds of chemical substances: organic (U), mainly ossein, and inorganic (2/3), mainly calcium salts, especially lime phosphate (more than half - 51.04%). If the bone is exposed to the action of a solution of acids (hydrochloric, nitric, etc.), then the lime salts dissolve (decalcinatio), and the organic matter remains and retains the shape of the bone, being, however, soft and elastic. If the bone is burned, then the organic matter burns out, and the inorganic remains, also retaining the shape of the bone and its hardness, but at the same time being very fragile. Consequently, bone elasticity depends on ossein, and its hardness depends on mineral salts. The combination of inorganic and organic substances in living bone gives it extraordinary strength and elasticity. This is also confirmed by age-related changes in the bone. In young children, who have relatively more ossein, bones are very flexible and therefore rarely break. On the contrary, in old age, when the ratio of organic and inorganic substances changes in favor of the latter, bones become less elastic and more fragile, as a result of which bone fractures are most often observed in old people.

Bone structure.

The structural unit of bone, visible in a magnifying glass or at low magnification of a microscope, is an osteon, that is, a system of bone plates concentrically located around a central channel containing blood vessels and nerves.

Osteons do not adjoin closely to each other, and the spaces between them are filled with interstitial bone plates. Osteons are arranged not randomly, but according to the functional load on the bone: in tubular bones parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bone, in cancellous bones - perpendicular to the vertical axis, in flat bones of the skull - parallel to the bone surface and radially.

Together with the interstitial plates, osteons form the main middle layer of bone substance, covered from the inside (from the endosteum) with an inner layer of bone plates, and from the outside (from the side of the periosteum) with the outer layer of the surrounding plates. The latter is permeated with blood vessels going from the periosteum to the bone substance in special perforating canals. The beginning of these channels can be seen on the macerated bone in the form of numerous nutrient holes (foramina nut-rfcia). The blood vessels in the canals provide metabolism in the bones. Osteons consist of larger bone elements, which are already visible to the naked eye on a cut or on an X-ray, - the crossbeams of the bone substance, or trabeculae. Of these trabeculae, a double kind of bone substance is formed: if the trabeculae lie tightly, then a dense compact substance is obtained, the substantia compacta. If the trabeculae lie loosely, forming bone cells between themselves like a sponge, then a spongy, trabecular substance is obtained, substantia spongiosa, trabecularis (spongia, Greek - sponge).

The distribution of the compact and cancellous substance depends on the functional conditions of the bone. The compact substance is found in those bones and in those parts of them that perform mainly the function of support (stance) and movement (levers), for example, in the diaphysis of tubular bones.

In places where, with a large volume, it is required to maintain lightness and at the same time strength, a spongy substance is formed, for example, in the epiphyses of tubular bones (Fig. 7).

The beams of the spongy substance are arranged not randomly, but naturally, also according to the functional conditions in which a given bone or part of it is located. Since the bones experience a double action - the pressure and traction of the muscles, so far as the bone bars are located along the lines of compression and tension forces. According to the different direction of these forces, different bones or even their parts have a different structure. In the integumentary bones of the cranial vault, which mainly perform the function of protection, the spongy substance has a special character that distinguishes it from the rest of the bones, which carry all 3 functions of the skeleton. This cancellous substance is called diploe, diploe (double), since it consists of irregularly shaped bone cells located between two bone plates - the outer, lamina externa, and the inner, lamina interna. The latter is also called vitreous, lamina vftrea, since it breaks down more easily when the skull is damaged than the outer one.

Bone cells contain bone marrow - an organ of hematopoiesis and biological defense of the body. It is also involved in nutrition, bone development and growth. In the tubular bones, the bone marrow is also located in the canal of these bones, which is therefore called the medullary cavity, cavitas medullaris.

Thus, all the internal spaces of the bone are filled with bone marrow, which constitutes an integral part of the bone as an organ.

Bone marrow is of two kinds: red and yellow.

Red bone marrow, medulla ossium rubra(for details of the structure, see the course of histology), looks like a delicate red mass, consisting of reticular tissue, in the loops of which there are cellular elements that are directly related to hematopoiesis (stem cells) and bone formation (bone builders - osteoblasts and bone destroyers - osteoclasts) ... It is permeated with nerves and blood vessels that supply, in addition to the bone marrow, the inner layers of the bone. The blood vessels and blood cells give the bone marrow its red color.

Yellow bone marrow, medulla ossium flava, owes its color to fat cells, of which it mainly consists.

In the period of development and growth of the body, when a large hematopoietic and bone-forming function is required, red bone marrow predominates (fetuses and newborns have only red marrow). As the child grows, the red brain is gradually replaced by yellow, which in adults completely fills the medullary cavity of the tubular bones.

Outside, the bone, with the exception of the articular surfaces, is covered by the periosteum, periosteum (periosteum).

Periosteum is a thin, strong connective tissue film of pale pink color, surrounding the bone from the outside and attached to it with the help of connective tissue bundles - perforating fibers that penetrate into the bone through special tubules. It consists of two layers: outer fibrous (fibrous) and inner bone-forming (osteogenic, or cambial). It is rich in nerves and blood vessels, due to which it participates in the nutrition and growth of bone in thickness. Nutrition is provided by blood vessels that penetrate in large numbers from the periosteum into the outer compact substance of the bone through numerous nutritive holes (foramina nutricia), and bone growth is carried out by osteoblasts located in the inner layer adjacent to the bone (cambial). The articular surfaces of the bone, free from the periosteum, cover the articular cartilage, cartilage articularis.

Thus, the concept of bone as an organ includes bone tissue, which forms the main mass of the bone, as well as bone marrow, periosteum, articular cartilage and numerous nerves and vessels.

Bone growth.

The prolonged growth of the organism and the huge difference between the size and shape of the embryonic and final bone are such that they make it inevitable during growth; in the process of restructuring, along with the formation of new osteons, there is a parallel process of resorption (resorption) of old ones, the remnants of which can be seen among the newly formed osteons ("intercalated" systems of plates). Resorption is the result of the activity in the bone of special cells - osteoclasts (clasis, Greek-breaking).
Thanks to the work of the latter, almost the entire endochondral bone of the diaphysis is absorbed and a cavity (medullary cavity) is formed in it. The layer of the perichondral bone is also subject to resorption, but instead of the disappearing bone tissue, new layers of it are deposited from the side of the periosteum. As a result, the young bone grows in thickness.
During the entire period of childhood and adolescence, there is a layer of cartilage between the pineal gland and the metaphysis, called the epiphyseal cartilage, or the growth plate. Due to this cartilage, the bone grows in length due to the multiplication of its cells, which deposit the intermediate cartilaginous substance. Subsequently, the multiplication of cells stops, the epiphyseal cartilage gives way to the onslaught of bone tissue and the metaphysis merges with the pineal gland - synostosis (bone fusion) is obtained.
Thus, ossification and bone growth is the result of the vital activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, performing the opposite functions of apposition and resorption - creation and destruction. Therefore, on the example of bone development, we see the manifestation of the dialectical law of the unity and struggle of opposites.

According to the described development and function, the following parts differ in each tubular bone (see Fig. 7):

1. Bone body, diaphysis, It is a bone tube containing yellow bone marrow in adults and performing mainly the functions of support and protection. The wall of the tube consists of a dense compact substance, the substantia compacta, in which the bony plates are located very close to each other and form a dense mass. The compact substance of the diaphysis is divided into two layers according to ossification of two kinds: 1) the external cortical (cortex - cortex) arises by perichondral ossification from the perichondrium or periosteum, from where it receives the blood vessels feeding it; 2) the inner layer is formed by endochondral ossification and receives nutrition from the vessels of the bone marrow.

The ends of the diaphysis, adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilage, - metaphysis. They develop together with the diaphysis, but participate in the growth of bones in length and consist of a spongy substance, substantia spongiosa. In the cells of the "bone sponge" is the red bone marrow.

2. The articular ends of each tubular bone, located on the other side of the epiphyseal cartilage, pineal glands... They also consist of a spongy substance containing red bone marrow, but in contrast to metaphyses, they develop endochondrically from an independent point of ossification located in the center of the cartilage of the pineal gland; outside they carry the articular surface involved in the formation of the joint.

3. Bone protrusions located near the pineal gland - apophyses, to which muscles and ligaments are attached. The apophyses ossify endochondrically from ossification points independently embedded in their cartilage and are built of spongy substance. In bones that are not tubular, but develop from several points of ossification, you can also distinguish similar parts.

Inert substance is a set of those substances in the biosphere, in the formation of which living organisms do not participate. [...]

Inert substance is a substance that is formed without the participation of living matter. Examples of inert matter are igneous rocks. [...]

The substance of the biosphere is sharply and deeply inhomogeneous (§ 38): living, inert, biogenic and bio-inert, living matter encompasses and rearranges all the chemical processes of the biosphere, its effective energy, in comparison with the energy of inert matter, is already enormous in historical time. Living matter is the most powerful geological force that grows with the passage of time. It does not live by chance and independently of the biosphere, but it is a natural manifestation of its physicochemical organization. Its formation and existence is its main geological function (part II). [...]

Inert matter is inanimate, but life-related matter, which includes deep rocks ejected by volcanoes; upon contact with living matter, it turns into bioinert. [...]

Inert substance is an inanimate substance, in the formation of which the living substance did not participate. [...]

LIVING SUBSTANCE - according to V.I. Vernadsky, "the totality of all living organisms that exist at a given moment, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, in weight, energy." Zh.v. inseparable from the mouth of the biosphere, being one of the most powerful geochemical forces of our planet, and has a number of unique properties (for example, it is capable of polarizing light, in contrast to inert matter - Pasteur-Curie's law). See Life. [...]

Bioinert substance is a substance that is simultaneously created by both living organisms and inert processes. It, according to the definition of V. I. Vernadsky, is a regular structure of living and inert matter. [...]

The classification of biosphere matter proposed by V.I. Vernadsky, from a logical point of view, is not flawless, since the selected categories of substances partially overlap each other. Thus, matter of cosmic origin is at the same time inert. The atoms of many elements are both radioactive and scattered at the same time. Bioinert substance "cannot be considered as a special type of substance, since it consists of two substances - living and inert. By its nature, this is not a substance, but a dynamic system, which is emphasized by V.I. Vernadsky. [...]

Thirdly, we have a substance formed by processes in which living matter does not participate: inert matter, solid, liquid and gaseous, of which only gaseous and liquid (and dispersed solid) are carriers of free energy on the surface of the biosphere. [... ]

Planetary astronomy and living matter (§ 167). Creation of the troposphere as a function of dispersed living matter in geochores and in the hydrosphere (§ 168). The chemical elementary composition of the biosphere substance is heterogeneous from the point of view of the energy effect: living, inert and bioinert substance. Differences within living matter. The chemical elementary composition of living matter (§ 171). Different understanding of the chemical composition of living matter in plant physiology and biogeochemistry (§ 172). [...]

The fundamental difference between living matter and inert matter is that it is embraced by an evolutionary process that continuously creates new forms of living things. The variety of life forms and their multifunctionality create the basis for a stable circulation of substances and channelized energy flows. This is the specificity and guarantee of the stability of the biosphere as a unique shell of the earth. [...]

A special category is bio-inert substance. VI Vernadsky (1926) wrote that it "is created in the biosphere simultaneously by living organisms and inert processes, representing the systems of dynamic equilibrium of both". Organisms in biomass matter play a leading role. Thus, the bioinert substance of the planet is the soil, the weathering crust, all natural waters, the properties of which depend on the activity of living matter on the Earth. Consequently, the biosphere is the area of the Earth that is covered by the influence of living matter. Life on Earth is the most outstanding process on its surface, receiving the life-giving energy of the Sun and setting in motion almost all the chemical elements of the periodic table. [...]

Comparison of the chemical composition of the living and inert matter of the Earth - the earth's crust and the waters of the World Ocean shows a discrepancy between the abundance of chemical elements in inert components and living matter (Fig. 2.1, a-d). So, in the earth's crust the carbon content is 70 times lower than in living matter, and silicon, on the contrary, is much higher. [...]

ECOSYSTEM is a set of biotic and inert components, which, using an external flow of energy, creates stronger connections (exchange of matter and information) within itself than between the considered complex and its environment, which ensures indefinitely long self-regulation and development of the whole under the control of biotic components. [...]

If we compare the chemical composition of the living and inert substances of the Earth, then it is easy to see their significant discrepancy. Thus, the carbon content in living matter is 70 times higher than in inert matter. Living beings are characterized by selectivity in the absorption of elements necessary for life, which has given rise to the problem of deficiency and limitation of the amount of living matter on Earth in the biosphere. The way out of this situation is the cycle, when an element, having undergone a series of biological and chemical transformations, returns to the composition of the original chemical compound. [...]

The evolutionary process is inherent only in living matter. There are no manifestations of it in the inert matter of our planet. The same minerals and rocks were formed in the Cryptozoic era as they are today. The exception is bioinert natural bodies, always associated in one way or another with living matter. [...]

The main distinguishing feature of living matter as a whole is the way of using energy. Living beings are unique natural objects that can capture energy that comes from the Cosmos mainly in the form of sunlight, hold it in the form of complex organic compounds (biomass), transfer it to each other, transform it into mechanical, electrical, thermal and other types of energy. Inert (inanimate) bodies are not capable of such complex transformations of energy, they mainly dissipate it: the stone heats up under the influence of solar energy, but can neither leave its place, nor increase its mass. [...]

The mass of the biosphere, which includes all organic matter of biogenic origin (a complex mixture of natural organic compounds, the main primary sources of which are plants, or, according to V.I. Vernadsky's definition, the substance created and processed by organisms) and inert matter of other spheres occupied by the biosphere, estimated at 2.5-3.0x1024 g. In the biosphere, the troposphere accounts for 0.004x1024 g, the hydrosphere - 1.4x1024 g, and the lithosphere within the biosphere - 1.6x1024 g. [...]

The states of space (symmetry) corresponding to the living matter of the biosphere. The sharp difference between the symmetry of the inert bodies of the biosphere from the symmetry of its living matter (§ 132, 133). Four-dimensional Euclidean space-time, in which time is the fourth dimension, and Einstein's space-time do not manifest themselves in specific symmetry phenomena (§ 134). In living matter, we see the manifestations of not only space, but a special space - time, reflected in their symmetry and expressed in the change of generations and in aging. Evolutionary process as a manifestation of space - time. D. Dan's principle (§ 137). The connection between the living and the inert. Biogenic migration of atoms (§ 138). [...]

There are several standards for drinking water, and we will touch on four of the most important: the Russian standard, determined by the corresponding GOSTs, the WHO (World Health Organization) standard, the US standard, and the European Union (EU) standard. The last three standards are given in the book, thanks to which we can obtain information about what is meant by drinking water in America and Europe. The publications I mentioned are structured in about the same way: first there are tables with a list of harmful substances and an indication of the maximum permissible concentration, and then descriptions of the methods by which the concentration of a particular component in water is determined. The methods describe in detail with what reagents and instruments and how the analyzes are carried out specifically. I would like to note that in our previous GOST there are about thirty such methods, and in the book there are twice as many [...]

In the biosphere, there are processes of transformation of inorganic, inert matter into organic and reverse restructuring of organic matter into mineral. The movement and transformation of substances in the biosphere is carried out with the direct participation of living matter, all types of which have specialized in various methods of nutrition. [...]

Above, in chapters XV and XVI, it is indicated that in the phenomena of life, in the aspect of living matter, we encounter a phenomenon that is sharply different from the usual inert matter of the planet and is associated with a special state of space-time, which in essence was foreseen by L. Pasteur in the XIX century, - phenomena of an essentially cosmic nature. [...]

In the previous chapter, I substantiated more deeply that the fundamental difference between living matter and inert matter is associated with a special state of space (§ 132-133) occupied by its bodies, and that this space cannot be Euclidean space of three dimensions and is clearly expressed as a special space - time. Until now, we do not yet know other phenomena on our planet that would also correspond to non-Euclidean space (§ 144). [...]

Here we encounter just the phenomenon that characterizes the living matter of the planet and sharply distinguishes it chemically from its inert matter. It consists in the following, At the same time, as the number of minerals - chemical compounds that correspond to them - is counted in a few thousand (§ 188), the number of various natural organic compounds that build the body of living matter is counted in hundreds of thousands, or rather millions, since in they are affected by individuality, which to such an extent is never found in minerals, where there is an individuality of deposits, but not the individuality of individuals. [...]

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CIRCUIT is the movement and transformation of chemical elements through inert and organic nature with the active participation of living matter. Chemical elements circulate in the biosphere along various paths of the biological cycle: they are absorbed by living matter and charged with energy, then they leave the living matter, giving up the accumulated energy to the external environment. Such more or less closed paths were named by V.I. Vernadsky “biogeochemical cycles.” These cycles can be subdivided into two main types: 1) circulation of gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere or hydrosphere (ocean) and 2) sedimentary cycle with In all biogeochemical cycles, living matter plays an active role. On this occasion, VI Vernadsky (1965, p. 127) wrote: “Living matter encompasses and rebuilds all chemical processes in the biosphere, its effective energy is enormous. matter is the most powerful geological force that grows with time. " that play an essential role in the life of the biosphere. [...]

IN AND. Vernadsky considered the biosphere as an area of life, the basis of which is the interaction of living and inert matter: “living organisms are a function of the biosphere and are closely connected materially and energetically with it, are a huge geological force that determines it ... Organisms are living matter, that is ... the totality of all living organisms currently existing, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, in weight, energy. It is connected with the environment by the biogenic current of atoms: its respiration, nutrition, reproduction. " Thus, according to V.I. Vernadsky, biogenic migration of atoms of chemical elements, caused by solar energy and manifested in the process of metabolism, growth and reproduction of organisms, is the main function of the biosphere. [...]

In the end, all the chemical elements of the Mendeleev table, apparently, are naturally enveloped in living matter. This can serve as an indirect confirmation that the difference between the living and inert matter of the planet is associated not with the difference in physical and chemical manifestations, but with a more general difference in the state of space-time of these material-energy systems (§ I4). [...]

In the biochemical functions of the first and second kind, we for the first time meet in a vivid form with a sharp difference between inert and living matter in the course of geological time. At the same time as living matter changes beyond recognition in its forms and continuously and naturally gives us millions of new types of organisms and a multitude of new chemical compounds, embraced by the evolutionary process, the inert matter of the planet remains inert, motionless and by the nature of the reactions taking place only in the eome of centuries naturally changes its atomic composition by a regular radioactive process, which is just beginning to open before us (Part I, Ch. In geological time, it remains practically unchanged in its morphological character. Compared with the ever mobile and chemically and morphologically changing world of animal organisms, the world of minerals remains motionless and unchanged since the Archaeozoic, with the exception of biogenic minerals, which are created by a biochemical function of the second kind (§ 195). [...]

First of all, it is necessary to construct the geometry that can correspond to the state of space of living matter. At the same time, the isolation of living matter in the inert environment surrounding it and Redi's principle that living things always come from living things and that there is no abiogenesis [...]

An ecosystem is a single natural complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, in which living and inert components are linked by metabolism and energy. An ecosystem is a self-developing thermodynamically open system. In the domestic literature, the equivalent term "biogeocenosis" is used. [...]

Accurate accounting is a matter of the future. In the meantime, we have to be content with an approximate account of the percentage of living matter in the inert nature surrounding it. I have made such calculations several times, and I will give the figures so that the reader has a clear idea of what is at stake. [...]

Speaking of toxic concentration as a kind of indicator of toxicity of natural-anthropogenic ecosystems, one cannot but touch upon such important concepts in ecotoxicology as a harmful substance or toxicant - a pollutant, metabolism, carcinogenesis, toxicity as a result of an excess of necessary substances and compounds, biogeochemical properties of toxicants and their chemically active migratory forms in the natural environment. [...]

Soil (according to V.I.Vernadsky) is a bio-inert body of nature, which occupies an intermediate position between biological organisms and inert bodies (rocks, minerals). It is a gigantic ecological system that actively participates in the cycle of substances and energy in nature, maintains the gas composition of the atmosphere. The most important property of the soil - fertility (the ability to ensure the growth and reproduction of plants) is disturbed as a result of anthropogenic activities: cattle grazing, plowing, growing monocultures, compaction, violation of the hydrological regime (groundwater level), pollution. Due to the fact that soil is the basis of the biological cycle, it becomes a source of migration of contaminated substances into the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and food (through plants and animals). The construction of the road as a result of the above reasons leads to a decrease in soil fertility. [...]

This is expressed in the fact, as I have already indicated, that we do not observe anywhere in nature abiogenesis - the formation of a living organism directly from an inert environment, that the connection of living matter with the inert environment surrounding it is manifested only in the biogenic current of atoms. Organisms reproduce for generations, are born. This process, as we now know, lasts for billions of years, and we do not know anywhere on Earth traces of time, where there would be no living matter (§ 114-116). [...]

Under the influence of life, a significant part of the atoms that make up the earth's surface are in continuous, intense movement. Living matter has the ability to plastic change, to adapt to changes in the environment, has its own process of evolution, which manifests itself in a change with the course of geological time, regardless of the change in the environment. Over the course of geological time, the strength of the influence of living matter on the biosphere increases, and its effect on the inert matter of the biosphere increases. Due to the evolution of species, which is continuous and never stops, the impact of living matter on the environment changes dramatically, spreading to all natural bioinert and biogenic bodies that play a major role in the biosphere, in soils, in ground and underground waters. The soils and rivers of the Devonian, for example, are different from the soils of the Tertiary time and our era. The evolution of the biosphere itself causes an intensification of the evolutionary process of living matter. [...]

It is possible to trace in the entire biosphere, thus, - emphasizes V. I. Vernadsky, - the movement of molecules generated by life; it encompasses the entire stratosphere, the entire region of the oceans, and the living nature of the land. You can catch its manifestation in a free atmosphere - in the stratosphere and further to the extreme border of the planet. We can prove its influence far beyond the realm of life in the deep layers of the Earth, in completely alien areas of metamorphism. " The huge geochemical role of living matter is determined by the fact that the elements are in it in a more energetic state (due to the accumulation of solar energy) than in inert matter. [...]

Biogeocenosis (from bio, Greek geo - land and koinos - community). A homogeneous area of the earth's surface with a certain composition of living (biocenoses) and inert (surface layer of the atmosphere, solar energy, soil, etc.) components, united by the exchange of matter and energy into a single natural complex. The term was proposed by V.N. Sukachev. The totality of biogeocenoses forms the biogeocenotic noipoe of the land, i.e. the entire biosphere, and a separate biogeocenosis is its elementary unit. [...]

All environmental factors in the general case can be divided into two large categories: abiotic (or abiogenic) -factors of inanimate or inert nature: climatic, space, soil; biotic (or biogenic) - factors of living nature. Abiotic components include matter and energy, biotic - genes, cells, organs, organisms, populations, communities. [...]

Thus, V. I. Vernadsky emphasizes the planetary and cosmic character of the biosphere. The most important provision of the theory of the biosphere is that atoms from living matter pass into the inert matter of the biosphere and vice versa, i.e., metabolism occurs. This transition of atoms is expressed in never-ending breathing, feeding, reproduction, and these processes are supported and created by the cosmic energy of the Sun. [...]

V.I.Vernadsky called the Earth's envelope the biosphere, in the formation of which living organisms have played and are playing the main role. He noted that the biosphere consists of several types of substances: biogenic, inert, bio-inert and living. Biogenic substance - geological rocks (coal, oil, limestone, etc.), created by the activity of living organisms and serving as a powerful source of energy. Inert matter is formed in the course of processes without the participation of living bodies. [...]

IN AND. Vernadsky emphasized that “the biosphere is the outer shell of the Earth, the area of distribution of life, which includes all living organisms, as well as the entire inanimate environment of their habitat, while between inert natural bodies and living substances there is a continuous material and energy exchange, expressed in movement atoms caused by living matter. This exchange in the course of time is expressed by a regularly changing equilibrium, constantly striving for stability ”. Further, the general laws of the relationship between nature and human society are mainly considered. [...]

Along with dynamism, stability in time is inherent in biogeocenoses, which is due to the fact that modern natural biogeocenoses are the result of long and deep adaptation of living components to each other and to the components of an inert environment. Therefore, biogeocenoses, brought out of a stable state by one reason or another, after its elimination can be restored in a form close to the initial one, and return again to the initial levels of the assimilation value of the trophic levels of the ecological pyramid. Therefore, in view of the fact that assimilation is inherent in everything, a living process, which is one of the sides of metabolism and energy with the formation of complex substances that make up organisms from simpler ones, and actively responds to disturbances of noocenoses, it is used to assess violations, pollution, impacts. and transformations of ecological systems by noocenoses seems to be a very justified approach. [...]

Symmetry in the system of sciences as the doctrine of the geometric properties of the states of the earth, that is, geological spaces, their complexity and heterogeneity (§ 125). The logic of natural science. The history of symmetry: everyday understanding and its development in science. Different symmetry of living substances and natural inert bodies (§ 126). Crystal spaces and Fedorov groups (§ 127). Real and perfect single crystal. Manifestations of time. Ideal and real crystal spaces (§ 128). Curie and Pasteur dissymmetry and states of space (§ 129). [...]

The biosphere (Greek bios-life, sphaira-ball) is the part of the globe within which there is life, which is the shell of the Earth, consisting of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere, which are interconnected by complex biochemical cycles of migration of matter and energy. The upper limit of the life of the biosphere is limited by the intense concentration of ultraviolet rays; the lower one - by the high temperature of the earth's interior (over 100 ° C). Only the lowest organisms - bacteria - reach its extreme limits. VI Vernadsky, the creator of the modern doctrine of the biosphere, emphasized that the biosphere includes the actual "living film" of the Earth (the sum of living organisms inhabiting the Earth at any given moment, the "living matter" of the planet) and the area of "former spheres" outlined distribution of biogenic sedimentary rocks on the Earth. Thus, the biosphere is a specifically organized unity of all living things and mineral elements. The interaction between them is manifested in the flows of energy and matter due to the energy of solar radiation. The biosphere is the largest (global) ecosystem of the Earth - an area of systemic interaction of living and inert matter on the planet. According to the definition of V. I. Vernadsky, "the limits of the biosphere are primarily due to the field of existence of life." [...]

IN AND. Vernadsky. By his definition, the biosphere is the outer shell (sphere) of the Earth, the area of distribution of life (bios - life). According to the latest data, the thickness of the biosphere is 40 ... 50 km. It includes the lower part of the atmosphere (up to an altitude of 25 ... 30 km, i.e. up to the ozone layer), practically the entire hydrosphere (rivers, seas and oceans) and the upper part of the earth's crust - the lithosphere (up to a depth of 3 km). The most important components of the biosphere are: living matter (plants, animals and microorganisms); biogenic matter (organic and organomineral products created by living organisms throughout geological history, coal, oil, peat, etc.); inert matter (rocks of inorganic origin and water); bioinert substance (a product of the synthesis of living and nonliving, i.e. sedimentary rocks, soils, silts). Vernadsky proved that all three shells of the Earth are associated with living matter, which has a continuous effect on inanimate nature.

Bone, os, ossis, as an organ of a living organism, it consists of several tissues, the most important of which is bone.

The chemical composition of the bone and its physical properties.

Bone substance consists of two kinds of chemical substances: organic (1/3), mainly ossein, and inorganic (2/3), mainly calcium salts, especially lime phosphate (more than half - 51.04%). If the bone is exposed to the action of a solution of acids (hydrochloric, nitric, etc.), then the lime salts dissolve (decalcinatio), and the organic matter remains and retains the shape of the bone, being, however, soft and elastic. If the bone is burned, then the organic matter burns out, and the inorganic remains, also retaining the shape of the bone and its hardness, but at the same time being very fragile. Consequently, bone elasticity depends on ossein, and its hardness depends on mineral salts. The combination of inorganic and organic substances in living bone gives it extraordinary strength and elasticity. This is also confirmed by age-related changes in the bone. In young children, who have relatively more ossein, bones are very flexible and therefore rarely break. On the contrary, in old age, when the ratio of organic and inorganic substances changes in favor of the latter, bones become less elastic and more fragile, as a result of which bone fractures are most often observed in old people.

Bone structure

Together with the interstitial plates, osteons form the main middle layer of bone substance, covered from the inside (from the endosteum) with an inner layer of bone plates, and from the outside (from the side of the periosteum) with the outer layer of the surrounding plates. The latter is permeated with blood vessels going from the periosteum to the bone substance in special perforating canals. The beginning of these canals can be seen on the macerated bone in the form of numerous feeding holes (foramina nutricia). The blood vessels in the canals provide metabolism in the bones. Osteons consist of larger bone elements, which are already visible to the naked eye on a cut or on an X-ray, - the crossbeams of the bone substance, or trabeculae. Of these trabeculae, a double kind of bone substance is formed: if the trabeculae lie tightly, then a dense compact substance is obtained, the substantia compacta. If the trabeculae lie loosely, forming bone cells between themselves like a sponge, then a spongy, trabecular substance is obtained, substantia spongiosa, trabecularis (spongia, Greek - sponge).

In places where, with a large volume, it is required to maintain lightness and at the same time strength, a spongy substance is formed, for example, in the epiphyses of tubular bones.

Thus, all the internal spaces of the bone are filled with bone marrow, which constitutes an integral part of the bone as an organ.

Bone marrow is of two kinds: red and yellow.

Yellow bone marrow, medulla ossium flava, owes its color to fat cells, of which it mainly consists.

Outside, the bone, with the exception of the articular surfaces, is covered by the periosteum, periosteum (periosteum).

Thus, the concept of bone as an organ includes bone tissue, which forms the main mass of the bone, as well as bone marrow, periosteum, articular cartilage and numerous nerves and vessels.

Video lesson: Bone as an organ. Development and growth of bones. Classification of bones according to M.G. I will add

Other video tutorials on this topic are located:

Popular

Minister of Finance Zverev. Iron People's Commissar of Stalin. Preparation of monetary reform

« The most private people. From Lenin to Gorbachev: An Encyclopedia of Biographies Zenkovich Nikolai Alexandrovich ZVEREV Arseny G. ZVEREV Arseny ... »

Organization of military affairs in the Middle Ages

« A chapter from the book of the Belgian historian Verbruggen "The Art of Warfare in Western Europe ..." »

The size and tactics of the war of the Japanese army and navy in World War II Japanese Army World War II

« The victorious Japanese troops shout "Banzai!" Upon learning of another victory in early 1942. [b] They fought in the frozen steppes of Mongolia against ... »