Reference group theories

Definition 1

A reference group in sociological science acts as an association with which an individual correlates his own and social values ​​and norms. In this case, the psychological aspect is very important, because only the acceptance of values ​​makes the group a reference group, and the denial of its norms leads to the fact that it loses its key meaning.

Reference group theory is based on many concepts, the key of which is J. Mead's symbolic interactionism. Also very popular are the ideas of J. Mead about the so-called “generalized friend”, through which the individual carries out his interactions with other participants in society, and society influences his psychological attitudes.

Note 1

The term “reference group” itself was introduced by social psychologist G. Hyman in 1942. It was very often used by the author to study the individual from the point of view of his own property status in relative comparison with the statuses possessed by other people.

It was from this moment that other scientists began to use the concept very widely. For example, T. Newcomb designated by it a group to which an individual isolates himself from a purely psychological point of view. For this reason, he shares its norms and goals. Newcome was also one of the first to propose a classification of reference groups, highlighting positive and negative. Positive reference groups include such group associations, their norms and values, which make a person want to become part of this particular group. A negative reference group, on the contrary, causes negative emotions and a desire to join a group that will oppose it.

Normative function of the reference group

Note 2

One of the first to highlight the functions of the reference group was G. Kelly in 1952. He suggested that this type of group can perform two key functions: normative and comparative (evaluative).

The normative function determines the key standards of behavior of an individual within a social group. In essence, an individual becomes part of a reference group only on the condition that he follows its values, rules and norms. In the modern world, a norm is a key indicator that regulates an individual’s social behavior and influences his value and ideological attitudes. But any individual strives to improve, while focusing himself on generally accepted standards and forms of behavior. Thus, based on examples of behavior within the reference group, he adopts the style of communication, manners of behavior, as well as rules of etiquette and dress code. In general, a person strives to do everything possible to become part of the reference group and set normative standards himself.

Often the reference group is influenced by fashion. There are a large number of countries that are considered trendsetters: Italy, France. In them, those standards and norms first appear, which are then accepted as unprecedented and undeniable and spread throughout the world. But the spread is also uneven and depends on how ready the residents themselves are to follow these norms and accept a new style of clothing and behavior.

Comparative function of the reference group

So, we have touched on the essence of the normative function, and now we will move on to the second - comparative (or, as it is also called, evaluative). This function of reference groups acts as a kind of standard for comparison. With its help, an individual can evaluate himself, as well as other people who are in his close or distant environment. The assessment includes family members, friends, acquaintances, work colleagues and ordinary passers-by.

The comparative-evaluative function makes a person want not only to build his attitude towards the reference group, but also to find out its attitude towards himself. But in most cases, the reference group does not have information about the individual, and thus he makes his own assessment of compliance with norms, using characteristic reference features.

R. Merton a little later identified several key conditions under which an individual is more likely to choose as a normative reference group not the group to which he is directly related and of which he is a member, but an external group:

• First, if the group to which the individual belongs does not provide sufficient prestige to its own members;
• Secondly, if the individual himself is to some extent isolated in his own group, and also has a low, non-dominant status in it;
• Thirdly, the greater the social mobility in society (which means the greater the opportunity for the individual to make changes within the framework of his social status and group affiliation), the more likely it is that he will choose as a reference group the group where members have higher social status. Status depends on the position held, income level and well-being. It also includes the ownership of expensive things and the ability to manage expensive property and lead a fashionable lifestyle.

Of course, when comparing himself with other members of society, an individual can be either motivated to further improve his own status, or, on the contrary, disappointed. Many authors note the psychological component, since a person is very susceptible to the success of an outsider. Not everyone is able to objectively compare themselves with representatives of the reference group. Often, not having special skills and talents, a person in comparison overestimates his strengths, and, finding himself in the reference group, does not meet its requirements. In this regard, he has to return back to his group. This happens quite often during employment: due to failures, a person suffers on a psychological level, which leads to his lack of motivation to make further attempts to find a job. That is why it is very important to focus specifically on aspects of social psychology, which play a very important role in determining the reference group, its characteristics and functionality.

The definition of a reference group can sound different:

Reference group- this is a certain group of people that is capable of directly or indirectly influencing the decision of an individual or his attitude towards something.

Reference group- this is a group that is a reference (the best example of something) for a person or group of people.

Examples of reference groups: rich people for poor people, smart people for stupid people, owners of branded items for people who want to have this brand, etc. (all examples are special cases)

Each person evaluates himself and chooses a line of behavior according to group standards. But since people belong to several different communities, each of which is a unique subculture or counterculture, the guidelines for our actions and attitudes towards them are different.

Concept and types of reference groups

A reference group is a group used by an individual to analyze his actions and position. A person may belong to the reference group or be very far from it. Such a community can be real (for example, a family) or virtual (bohemia). In our time, the influence of imaginary groups has sharply increased.

As a rule, the interaction between a person and a reference (standard) group is unstable. In different life situations, the same person can take completely different communities as a model. A person is guided by several examples when purchasing different types of goods or choosing unrelated lifestyle elements.

Interaction group(member group) are people surrounding a specific person (relatives, friends, employees). It may or may not be referential.

Community groups

Social groups can be divided into several types.

Primary and secondary:

• primary– small communities whose members interact with each other all the time (for example, relatives);
• secondary– groups of varying sizes, whose members communicate with each other from time to time (work colleagues).

Formal and informal:

• formal– communities with a strict and documented structure (political organization); have a significant impact on a person while building his career;
• informal– groups where there is no structure, and the basis is formed by common interests (friendly team); seriously affect the personality at an early and late age, when the circle of communication is limited mainly by relatives.

Positive and negative:

• positive– groups with which a person identifies himself, adopting their style of behavior and rules;
• negative– communities with which the consumer rejects connections.

In a society where there are many subcultures, there is no list of positive and negative reference groups that is the same for the majority.

Forms of influence of reference groups on the consumer

The community has power over its members, inducing them to behave in a certain way, including as consumers. There are several types of such influence:

1. Reward Power. This is an impact on a person through possible rewards for fulfilling requirements, that is, positive sanctions. Examples include a promotion, a salary increase, or verbal admiration. Conforming to the rules of the community helps a person gain higher status, gain recognition and authority, for which he follows the norms established in the group with great diligence. For example: a girl goes to a disco in a trendy outfit to hear compliments.
2. The power of coercion. Influencing an individual through punishment or withdrawal of rewards, that is, through negative sanctions. In formal communities, such an example would be a remark that could have a negative impact on an employee's career. Let's say that if an office employee shows up for work in beachwear, he will receive a penalty from his superiors. In informal ones, those who break the rules of the group will face contempt or ridicule.
3. Legitimate power. Influencing the activities of group members through their agreement that the community has a legal right to do so. In this situation, reward or punishment will not be required. A person, without hesitation, follows the rules of the community, because considers him to have the right to establish them. Example: students purchase notebooks because... We agree with the opinion of teachers that it is necessary to take notes.
4. The power of self-identification. An influence on a person's lifestyle based on his intention to belong to or be close to a community. A specific style of consumption or its details are considered a sign of compliance with the group, therefore those who wish to belong to it are obliged not to deviate from the framework of this style. The requirement can be either strict or soft, in the form of a wish. Example: every biker needs a powerful motorcycle.

The influence of reference groups on an individual is possible in four forms.

Regulatory form

Requirements to follow group rules to maintain a positive public opinion. This form strongly influences people with high self-discipline and is clearly visible when purchasing products of visible consumption. Relevant for self-identification groups and utilitarian communities.

Reference self-identification group called the community to which a person belongs, being under the pressure of its values ​​and rules. The group directly or indirectly forces him to comply with a certain line of behavior, in particular consumption, which is considered correct, and not to perform actions that look “inappropriate” or “strange”.

Utilitarian form

Utilitarian group is a community that has the ability to apply positive and negative sanctions, that is, the ability to reward and punish its member. This type may include various real and virtual groups. The individual must have an incentive to act, which is the desire to receive a reward or avoid punishment.

Value form

Value-based. The influence in which an individual adjusts his lifestyle to the behavior of group members due to agreement with its values. The consumer may be part of a community or only mentally consider himself part of it. This form manifests itself in relation to self-identification or value groups.

Value reference group - a real or imagined community whose members are recognized by the individual as outstanding possessors of values ​​that he himself shares. In such a group they not only sympathize with certain views, but openly express them through their style of behavior. A person who imitates its members copies this style. He is not part of this group, and most often he is very far from it both physically and socially. As a rule, such communities include prominent figures in a particular area that is interesting to the individual.

Information form

Informational. Occurs through the exchange of views of different people. The consumer purchases a product, being exposed to the information influence of the reference group, if he needs to find out everything about this product, but has nowhere to get information from except this source; when there are strong social ties between the recipient and the source of information; if positive feedback is very important to the consumer.

This type of influence is exerted by the information reference group - the community whose data the buyer trusts. This group has two main forms:

• people with experience (those who have tried the products);
• experts - professionals in a specific field, whose opinion actually corresponds to the quality of the product; expert assessment can significantly influence the cost of acquisition.

Studying and taking into account the impact of reference groups on consumers

When purchasing various items, people are subject to varying degrees of pressure from reference communities. When people go to the store to buy groceries, clothing, and other desperately needed items, they do not look to the opinions of any group. However, they do not even suspect that when purchasing the selected product they are still under influence.

There are products that are considered prestigious: delicacies, expensive alcohol. Some clothing brands correspond to a specific reference group. If you purchase an essential item that will not be shown to others, the degree of influence of standards is minimal, but if it is a luxury attribute, it is maximum.

The degree of influence of reference groups on the purchase of products is considered in three directions:

• dependence of the level of influence on the type of product (everyday or luxury item);
• dependence on the type of use of the product (openly or without the presence of strangers);
• dependence on the category of product or service (for example, driving a car independently or using the services of a driver) and brand (buying a Mercedes or Volkswagen);

According to the three factors described, the impact of reference communities on the buyer is characterized as follows:

• the impact on the purchase of everyday goods is weak, but on the brand of these products – strong;
• the impact on both the type and brand of purchased private products is weak;
• the influence on the type and brand of goods when purchasing luxury attributes is strong (this product is a sign of prestige, and its brand emphasizes the status of the buyer).

When the impact of reference groups on a product brand is strong, it can be used in branding(nonsense is a brand recommended to the consumer by a reference group).

The reference group sets the fashion, thanks to which many products are sold more successfully. Fashion- this is the value in which the norm of external behavior is perceived by a person as a need and desire.

The fashion structure consists of:

• objects: clothing, food products, alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, works of art and literature, masterpieces of architecture, lifestyle, sports; depending on their purpose, different items may be influenced by fashion to varying degrees;
• rules of conduct, corresponding to specific standards (for example, fashionable types of dances) and patterns of behavior using fashionable objects (owning prestigious furniture).

Distinctive features of fashion:

• modernity (the latest fashion objects are of high quality);
• demonstrativeness (a fashion object is necessary for demonstration to the environment).

The following fashion phases are known:

1. Production. It can be ideal and material. The first includes the creation of projects (drawings, descriptions, paintings). The performers are musicians, artists, writers.
2. Offer fashionable objects and behavioral standards to a wide range of people. Produced using open and hidden advertising. The first is a story to the consumer about the appearance of a new item, which, according to one or another criteria, has become fashionable. The second is to demonstrate to the individual members of reference groups who own fashion objects.
3. Consumption fashion items. Buyers demonstrate products to others while they are in use.

From all of the above, we can conclude that a person’s acquisition of products, especially at a high price, to a certain extent depends on the influence of reference groups, which you need to know for competent marketing.

Throughout life, a person enters into social interaction with many people and groups of people and finds himself in different social communities. He chooses some of them, and falls into others by chance.

Reference group – a specially important group of people, a reference model with which a person relates, compares and identifies himself. Reference groups are the most interesting from a psychological point of view, since they influence the personality, being an integral component of socialization. Standards of behavior, ideals, moral standards adopted in the reference group are guidelines for a person, his behavior and self-esteem depend on this group.

So, the significance of the reference group is expressed in the fact that it:

• influences a person's self-esteem,
• determines criteria for evaluating other people,
• defines norms of behavior, moral standards,
• forms social attitudes, social orientation of the individual,
• determines values, priorities, principles, human needs,
• influences the formation of an individual’s personal opinions and views.

A group can be either real and permanently existing (for example, a family), or conditionally existing or virtual (for example, computer burglars).

Reference groups in human life

As a rule, a person considers himself to belong to several reference groups. The number of such groups increases as a person grows older.

At first, only his family is important for the baby, he is guided by the norms and rules established in it. During this period, the child learns the basic concepts of morality and ethics.

Then the child ends up in a children's group. The influence of the reference children's group on the child is very noticeable when the child begins to ask his parents to buy him, for example, a toy that the majority of children in the group have. At this age, it is difficult for a child to distinguish his own needs from the needs of the group. Therefore, most often the justification for immoral children’s actions is the phrase: “Everyone did it that way, that’s why I did it too!” The baby learns to coexist with other people, communicate, make friends, take into account the interests of others, and be involved in the group.

For a teenager, the company of friends and the class in which he studies is of great importance.. If it is “fashionable” in the class to be smart, a child who studies well will study even harder. In this case, the reference group will be “positive” for him. If in the class there are more respected individuals who do not want to study at all, the child will either adapt to the requirements of the group and begin to study worse, or will show such a personality trait as nonconformism and will continue to study well. In the second case, the reference group will become “negative” for him, but will still remain significant.

A teenager is most inclined to compare himself with others; he strives for ideals and wants to be a respected member of a peer group. Teenagers join various groups of youth subcultures, fans of musical groups, computer games and other significant communities.

It is very important for a person, when relating himself to significant others, to have his own opinions and views, and to be able to resist manipulation and negative influence. The more developed and conscious a person is, the more demanding he is in choosing a significant group. In adolescence, a person can become involved with antisocial individuals and groups, following the desire to be in “bad” but authoritative company.

A positive referent group is a group that motivates an individual to be accepted into its composition and to achieve an attitude towards himself as a member of the group. For example, for a school graduate, this could be the student group of a particular higher education institution in which the student aspires to study.

A negative reference group motivates an individual to oppose it, or in which he does not want to be treated as a member of the group. For example, a person from the lower class renounces his social environment and does not want to be identified with representatives of the “lower class” * 129.

* 129: (Kelly G. Two functions of reference groups // Modern foreign social psychology. - M., 1984. - P. 197-203.)

There are real and imaginary reference group.

We can also talk about the following types of reference groups:

Information - information carriers. Among them there are carriers of experience and experts;

- Value - is the standard of the value-normative system;

- Utilitarian - this is a group that bears material or other benefits that are important to the individual. For males, the utilitarian reference group is women, and for women, men;

- Self-identification group - a group with which a person identifies himself, of which he considers himself a member.

For example, according to an annual monitoring study conducted by the Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, on a sample representative of the adult population of Ukraine, in 1992-2002. 13% of the population to the question “Who do you, first of all, consider yourself to be?” (only one option could be selected) noted: “citizen of the former Soviet Union”, in 2006. Such self-identification was already characteristic of 7%, and in 2008. - 9% of the population * 130. That is, for them the Soviet Union is a reference group of self-identification, a group to which they belonged in the past, but today they consider themselves to be its members.

* 130: (Golovakha E., Gorbachik A. Social changes in Ukraine and Europe: according to the results of the “European Social Research” 2005-2007. - M., 2008. - P. 35.)

Functions of reference groups

Reference groups, due to their heterogeneity, can perform various functions * 131 in the formation of an individual’s social attitudes.

* 131: (Kelly G. Two functions of reference groups // Modern foreign social psychology - M., 1984. - P. 197-203.)

Firstly, to impose and form standards - group norms - on the individual. This is the normative function of the reference group.

Secondly, it is a standard, a reference point for comparison and fulfills comparative function.

Often both normative and comparative functions are performed by the same reference group, but not always.

When choosing a reference group, an individual takes into account such characteristics as lifestyle, prestige, income, as well as its openness-closedness, degree of social differentiation, autonomy or dependence of the group, relative social position, social strength of the group and other parameters.

The reference group does not always act as a membership group, which could be considered the optimal option for the individual. Sometimes quite contradictory situations arise when an individual has accepted the values ​​and behavior patterns of a positive reference group, but she does not accept him as a member of the group. Then a situation of Marginality arises, which is defined as the marginality of a social role.

Conflicts may arise between membership and reference groups. Pollis N. built typology of referent group conflict, which arises when choosing certain groups as reference * 132:

* 132: (Feigina A. A. The theory of reference groups in the works of Robert K. Merton)

1) Conflict between membership group and reference group: arises when a membership group expects from an individual a certain type of behavior characteristic of this group, and the individual’s behavior does not meet expectations due to an orientation towards the value-normative system of the reference group.

2) Conflict between referents groups: occurs when an individual chooses several groups with opposite standards as reference.

3) Conflict between established identity and attractive identity: the individual “body and soul” belongs to one reference group, while simultaneously identifying himself with another, striving to meet its standards.

4) Conflict arises when two groups are both membership groups and reference groups, who put forward opposite demands: for example, a gentle and caring father simultaneously strives for career growth and family harmony.

The socio-group structure of society requires further study: the search for a real set of basic elements of the structure, the determination of their essential characteristics, influence, functions, conflict forms of interaction, the projection of group membership on the behavior of the individual, and the like.

Social group is one of the core categories of sociology. It describes various forms of unification of people. In sociological analysis, considerable attention is paid to identifying indicators of the reality of a social group. These include: participation as subjects and objects in real social relations; general needs and interests, social norms; values; mutual identification; similar motivation; own symbols; similar lifestyle; self-reproduction, an excellent system of social connections.

The classification of social groups makes it possible to more fully elucidate their essential features. Social groups are divided by the nature of the relationship: real, nominal, fictitious; by duration of existence: long-term and short-term; behind the closeness of contacts between group members: large and small; measure of inclusion in the group: formal and informal; by degree of organization: unorganized and organized. An understanding of the direction of an individual’s behavior and its value orientations is provided by the reference group, which acts as a standard, sample, and guideline for the individual’s activities.

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Reference groups. The term “reference group” was first coined by social psychologist Mustafa Sherif in 1948 and means a real or conditional social community with which an individual relates himself as a standard, and on whose norms, opinions, values ​​and assessments he is guided in his behavior and self-esteem (204, p. 93). A boy, playing the guitar or playing sports, is guided by the lifestyle and behavior of rock stars or sports idols. An employee in an organization, striving to make a career, is guided by the behavior of top management. It may also be noted that ambitious people who suddenly receive a lot of money tend to imitate the representatives of the upper classes in dress and manners.

Sometimes the reference group and the ingroup may coincide, for example, in the case when a teenager is guided by his company to a greater extent than by the opinion of teachers. At the same time, an outgroup can also be a reference group, and the examples given above illustrate this.

There are normative and comparative referent functions. groups. The normative function of the reference group is manifested in the fact that this group is the source of norms of behavior, social attitudes and value orientations of the individual. Thus, a little boy, wanting to quickly become an adult, tries to follow the norms and value orientations accepted among adults, and an emigrant coming to another country tries to master the norms and attitudes of the natives as quickly as possible, so as not to be a “black sheep.” , The comparative function is manifested in the fact that the reference group acts as a standard by which an individual can evaluate himself and others. Remember what we said about the concept of the mirror self. Ch. Cooley noted that if a child perceives the reaction of loved ones and believes their assessments, then a more mature person selects individual reference groups, belonging or not belonging to which is especially desirable for him, and forms an “I” image based on assessments of these groups.

A reference group is a social group that serves as a kind of standard for an individual, a frame of reference for himself and others, as well as a source for the formation of social norms and value orientations.

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Classification of groups

Based on the functions performed, normative and comparative reference groups are distinguished, based on the fact of group membership - presence groups and ideal, in accordance with the individual’s agreement or rejection of the norms and values ​​of the group - positive and negative reference groups.

The normative reference group acts as a source of norms regulating the behavior of an individual, a guideline for a number of problems that are significant to him. In turn, the comparative reference group is a standard for the individual in assessing himself and others. The same reference group can act as both normative and comparative.

A presence group is a reference group of which an individual is a member. An ideal reference group is a group whose opinion an individual is guided by in his behavior, in his assessment of events that are important to him, in his subjective relations with other people, but of which he is not a member for some reason. Such a group is especially attractive to him. An ideal reference group can be either really existing in a social environment or fictitious (in this case, the standard of subjective assessments and life ideals of an individual are literary heroes, historical figures of the distant past, etc.).

If the social norms and value orientations of a positive reference group fully correspond to the ideas about the norms and values ​​of the individual, then the value system of a negative reference group, with the same degree of significance and importance of the assessments and opinions of this group, is alien to the individual and is opposite to his values. Therefore, in his behavior he tries to receive a negative assessment, “disapproval” of his actions and position from this group.

In sociology and social psychology, the concept of “reference group” is used mainly to explain the socio-psychological mechanisms involved in the formation of values ​​and normative regulation of the individual in the individual consciousness. In this regard, it is of interest for sociological research related to the study of the effectiveness of pedagogical and propaganda influences, since the ability to find and identify reference groups significantly simplifies the work of studying the orientation of the individual and the search for ways to purposefully influence its formation.

The concept of a reference group

The concept of a reference group was introduced into scientific circulation by Herbert Hymon in his work “Archives of Psychology” in 1942. By reference he understood the group that an individual uses for a comparative assessment of his own position or behavior. Haymon distinguished between the group to which an individual belongs and the reference or standard group, which serves as a criterion for comparison (Marshall 1996: 441).

The most extensive analysis of reference groups in the context of the functionalist tradition was given by Robert Merton and Alice Kitt in a work published in 1950.

Typology of reference groups

An individual may belong to a reference group or be very far from it. The interaction group (R. Merton's term), or membership group, is the immediate social environment of the individual. This is the group he belongs to. If we value membership in a given group, if we strive to gain a foothold in it and consider the norms and values ​​of its subculture as the most authoritative, strive to be like the majority of its members, then this group can be considered as a reference group. In this case, the interaction group and the reference group simply coincide, but their qualitative characteristics are completely different. If we consider ourselves superior to the members of our group or consider ourselves as strangers in it, then no matter how closely we are connected with it, this group is not a reference group. In this case, the group does not offer attractive norms and values.

The reference group can be a real social group or an imaginary one, which is the result of social construction, acting as a statistical community, the members of which may not even suspect that for someone they are one cohesive group. Thus, for decades, for many Soviet people there was such a mythical reference group as “the West”, “America”.

The more ossified and closed a given society is, the more likely it is that an individual’s reference group is his social interaction group. Thus, in pre-capitalist societies, a class social structure dominated, in which most people were born into a certain class (a group with a social status established by laws) and remained in it all their lives, passing on their class status by inheritance. In such a society, for a peasant to compare himself with the court aristocracy and imitate it was the height of absurdity. Capitalist or state socialist (e.g. Soviet) societies are open to social mobility. This means that someone born into a peasant family has a chance of breaking through to the very top of the political, administrative or economic hierarchy. In such a society, it is quite reasonable for an individual to be at the bottom, but imitating those at the very top. In such a society, rapprochement with the reference group is potentially real. The "American Dream" as America's most important myth states that every American can become a president or a millionaire. American mythology is full of examples indicating the reality of this dream. Soviet mythology also contains many examples of heroes who rose from “simple workers and peasants” to the highest positions in the state. In post-Soviet society, the bulk of the country's richest people just yesterday were on the same floor as most of us.

The connection of an individual with reference groups is often unstable, mobile, and vague. This means that at different stages of his biography he may have different reference groups. In addition, when choosing different elements of a lifestyle and making different purchases, an individual can focus on different reference groups.

For example, if I am an athlete, then when choosing sportswear, a certain team or its stars may act as a reference group for me, but if I am not a fan, but just a normal athlete, then the opinion of a sports star on issues that go beyond sports are no longer authoritative. And when choosing toothpaste, I will listen to the dentist, but not my favorite champion.

Standard (reference) groups can be positive and negative. A positive reference group is that real or imagined group that serves as a role model, an attractive standard. The closer an individual is to it in terms of lifestyle, the more satisfaction he feels. A negative reference group is a real or imaginary (constructed) group that acts as a repulsive example; it is a group of contact or association with which one strives to avoid.

The set of reference groups is relative. This means that in a society consisting of many social groups and subcultures, there is no single set of positive and negative reference groups that is valid for everyone. That group, which is a role model for some people, is considered by others as an anti-standard (“God forbid we be like them”). In this case they say: “You dressed up like:.” In our society, such a “compliment” can be a comparison with a milkmaid, a collective farmer, a villager, a new Russian, a nun, a “tough” bandit, etc.

Reference groups are divided into several types: informational (sources of reliable information), self-identification, value.

An information reference group is a group of people whose information we trust. It doesn’t matter whether we fall into error or are close to the truth. The main distinguishing feature of such a group is that we trust the information coming from it. This group appears in two main forms:

a) Carriers of experience. Such a group can be people who have tried “their own skin” this product or service. We turn to their amateur experience to confirm or refute doubts regarding the brand of goods planned for purchase.

b) Experts, that is, specialists in a given field. This is a group that is considered by others as the most knowledgeable in a particular area, whose judgment most accurately reflects the real qualities of a phenomenon, product, service, etc.

When does the need for an expert arise? It is turned to when a problematic situation arises within the framework of everyday life, when the flow of everyday life is disrupted (Ionin 1996: 97). A man ate all his life without thinking about his teeth. And suddenly they reminded him so much that he could not think about anything but teeth. The car drove for a number of years, and then stopped... The flow of normal life is disrupted, and our knowledge is not enough to get out of the problematic situation.

We also turn to experts to maintain the normal course of everyday life. Encyclopedists died out a little later than mammoths, so even the most outstanding of our contemporaries are amateurs in most areas with which they encounter. What can we say about the mass of ordinary people? Naturally, when choosing goods and services, we have no choice but to rely on the opinion of experts. I don’t understand anything about medicine, so I choose toothpastes, brushes, medications, relying mainly on the opinion of doctors. I am an amateur in radio engineering, so when choosing radio products I rely on the judgment of people who are or seem to me to be experts.

An expert's assessment can dramatically change the cost of a product. Thus, most paintings are bought by amateurs, because art criticism is a special science that requires long-term professional training, which ultimately does not lead to wealth. Those who have enough money to buy valuable paintings cannot, as a rule, combine their income-generating activities with a serious study of art. Therefore, the same painting exhibited on the Arbat or at a prestigious exhibition has a completely different price: in the first case, it is a product without a quality certificate, in the second, admission to a prestigious exhibition is a sign of quality for amateurs. The same situation applies to books published in a capital or provincial publishing house. For amateurs, the capital acts as a positive reference group, and the province as a negative one. Only an expert does not need someone else's opinion to select a product. However, an expert is always a narrow specialist, and outside his narrow sphere of competence he is an amateur.

The reference group of self-identification is the group to which the individual belongs and is under the pressure of its norms and values. He might have wanted to avoid this compulsion, but, as the saying goes, “to live with wolves is to howl like a wolf.” The group directly or indirectly forces him to adhere to a style of behavior, including consumption, that is considered as “appropriate” for a member of this group, and to avoid a style that is considered “indecent” or “strange” by the group.

A value reference group is a real or imaginary group of people who are considered by a given individual as bright carriers, exponents of the values ​​that he shares. Since this group not only secretly sympathizes with these values, but actively professes them through its lifestyle and has moved much further along the path of realizing these values, the individual imitates this group and strives to follow the style of behavior accepted in it. He is not a member of this group, and is sometimes very far from it both in physical and social space. Most often, the role of such a reference group is played by the “stars” of sports, cinema, pop music and heroes, outstanding figures in the field to which a given individual gravitates.

(4) A utilitarian reference group is a group that has an arsenal of positive and negative sanctions, that is, it is capable of both rewarding and punishing an individual. A variety of real and imaginary social groups can act in this capacity.

For example, an employee of an institution dresses the way his boss likes, so as not to irritate him and not create obstacles to his own career. Before work, stepping on the throat of his own song, he does not drink vodka or eat garlic, even if he really wants to, because he knows that his boss has the power to fire him for such features of his consumption style. The young man selects a style of behavior that evokes sympathy, if not from everyone, then from a select part of the girls, or even just one, but the best. Girls in this case act as a utilitarian reference group that has such an arsenal of positive and negative sanctions as obvious and hidden manifestations of sympathy, love, antipathy, and contempt.

The influence of the reference group has a particularly strong effect on the behavior of a significant part of girls and women. It is among them that the willingness to make the greatest sacrifices, inconveniences in order to cause delight or simply the attention of that part of the men who are the reference group, or envy, approval from other women acting as the second reference group is especially noticeable.

Thus, doctors have long proven that high heels have a harmful effect on women’s health. However, again and again the fashion for them returns, and millions wear these beautiful but uncomfortable shoes. For what? As the king of London shoe fashion, Manolo Blahnik, explained, “high heels elevate a woman, make her strong in order to drive men crazy and conquer the world” (Maslov 6.11.97). Thus, the key to understanding women's consumer behavior often lies in the tastes of men.

This mechanism of group influence usually manifests itself in the presence of a number of conditions. (1) Most often, this type of reference group exerts influence when performing actions that are visible to others or leading to results that cannot be unnoticed by others (for example, buying outerwear). (2) The individual feels that those around him have at their disposal positive or negative sanctions towards him (approval - ridicule, etc.). (3) The individual is motivated to strive to obtain the rewards of the group and avoid punishment from its side (for example, strives to achieve a career or win the sympathy of the opposite sex) (Loudon and Bitta: 277).

Social facilitation (from the Latin socialis - public and facilitare - to facilitate) is a socio-psychological phenomenon. Increasing the productivity of an activity, its speed and quality, when it is performed either simply in the presence of other people, or in a competitive situation.

Social facilitation [from English. facilitate - to facilitate] - increasing the efficiency (in terms of speed and productivity) of a person’s activity in conditions of its functioning in the presence of other people who, in the mind of the subject, act as either a simple observer or an individual or individuals competing with him. Social facilitation was first recorded and described at the end of the 19th century (V. M. Bekhterev, F. Allport, L. V. Lange, etc.). One of the cases of identifying the phenomenon of social facilitation was a situation recorded by observers at a bicycle track (unlike a regular stadium, a bicycle track is designed in such a way that the stands with spectators are located along only one side of the track). It turned out that, regardless of the tactical plans agreed with the coach for the fight for championship in the race, it is in front of the stands with spectators that the athletes involuntarily accelerate, even to the detriment of a possible victory, which, as a necessary condition, would imply some “pre-acceleration slowdown.” In some cases, the presence of other people who do not interfere with an individual’s actions leads to a deterioration in the results of his activities. This phenomenon is called social inhibition. It has been absolutely clearly established that the phenomenon of “facilitation - inhibition” manifests itself in fundamentally different ways in conditions of intellectually complex and simple, essentially mechanical activity. Thus, in the first case, the presence of observers most often leads to a decrease in the qualitative success of the activity carried out by the subject, and in the second - to a clear increase in the quantitative indicators of its implementation. It should be noted that the severity of the socio-psychological phenomenon “facilitation - inhibition” largely depends on gender, age, status-role and a number of other social and socio-psychological characteristics of the individual. At the same time, it is necessary to understand that such “inclusion” in the analysis process of additional specifying-personifying variables poses the task for the researcher at the stage of interpreting empirical data with the help of additional experimental efforts to differentiate the phenomenon of “facilitation - inhibition” and the phenomenon of real personal personalization. It is necessary to distinguish between the essential discrepancy between the phenomena of facilitation and personalization. If in a “personalization” situation the image of a specific, to one degree or another, “significant other” is updated, then in a “facilitation” situation only the very fact of the presence of another is actualized, not significant as a specific person, but significant only because he is present and because that he is "different".

Social inhibition (from Latin socialis - social and inhibere - to restrain) is a socio-psychological phenomenon. A decrease in activity productivity, speed and quality when it is performed in the presence of other people. It can manifest itself even when others are not present in reality, but only in the imagination.

Conformism (from late Latin conformis - “similar”, “conformable”) - passive, uncritical acceptance of the prevailing order, norms, values, traditions, laws, etc. Manifests itself in a change in behavior and attitudes in accordance with the change in the position of the majority or itself majority. There are external conformism and internal conformism. Nonconformism can be seen as conformity to the norms and values ​​of a minority.

In everyday use, the words “conformism” and “conformal” most often have a negative connotation, focusing attention on the negative role of conformity. Because of this false dilemma, nonconformity is often attributed to the absence of the negative qualities inherent in conformity, and the positive qualities that conformity lacks.

Factors that determine conformity

the nature of interpersonal relationships (friendly or conflicting)

the need and ability to make independent decisions

size of the team (the smaller it is, the stronger the conformity)

the presence of a cohesive group that influences other team members

current situation or problem being solved (complex issues can be resolved collectively)

the formal status of a person in a group (the higher the formal status, the less manifestations of conformity)

informal status of a person in a group (a non-conforming informal leader quickly loses his leader status)

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Automatic conformity

Automatic conformism is one of the protective behavior programs, the task of which is to eliminate the contradiction between the individual and society due to the individual’s loss of his unique human qualities.

In some societies, an individual's protective behavior includes declaring (explicitly or implicitly) that he is a patriot, and social adaptation is passed off as patriotism. In particular, standing during the playing of the national anthem can be as much an expression of patriotism as it is automatic conformity.

Reference group": sometimes like group, opposing group membership, sometimes like group, arising inside groups membership... " referential group": sometimes like group, opposing group membership, sometimes like group, arising inside groups membership...